Sanitary Risks Research Articles

Artificial Neural Networks on Eggs Production Data Management

Background: Eggs have acquired a greater importance as an inexpensive and high-quality protein. The Brazilian egg industry has been characterized by a constant production expansion in the last decade, increasing the number of housed animals and facilitating the spread of many diseases. In order to reduce the sanitary and financial risks, decisions regard­ing the production and the health status of the flock must be made based on objective criteria. The use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) is a valuable tool to reduce the subjectivity of the analysis. In this context, the aim of this study was at validating the ANNs as viable tool to be employed in the prediction and management of commercial egg production flocks.Materials, Methods & Results: Data from 42 flocks of commercial layer hens from a poultry company were selected. The data refer to the period between 2010 and 2018 and it represents a total of 600,000 layers. Six parameters were selected as “output” data (number of dead birds per week, feed consumption, number of eggs, weekly weight, weekly egg produc­tion and flock uniformity) and a total of 13 parameters were selected as “input” data (flock age, flock identification, total hens in the flock, weekly weight, flock uniformity, lineage, weekly mortality, absolute number of dead birds, eggs/hen, weekly egg production, feed consumption, flock location, creation phase). ANNs were elaborated by software programs NeuroShell Predictor and NeuroShell Classifier. The programs identified input variables for the assembly of the networks seeking the prediction of the variables called outgoing that are subsequently validated. This validation goes through the comparison between the predictions and the real data present in the database that was the basis for the work. Validation of each ANN is expressed by the specific statistical parameters multiple determination (R2) and Mean Squared Error (MSE). For instance, R2 above 0.70 expresses a good validation. ANN developed for the output variable “number of dead birds per week” presented R2= 0.9533 and MSE= 256.88. For “feed consumption”, the results were R2= 0.7382 and MSE= 274.56. For “number of eggs (eggs/hen)”, the results were R2= 0.9901 and MSE= 172.26. For “weekly weight”, R2= 0.9712 and MSE= 11154.41. For “weekly egg production”, R2= 0.8015 and MSE= 72.60. For “flock uniformity”, R2= -2.9955 and MSE= 431.82.Discussion: From the six ANN designed in this study, in five it was possible to validate the predictions by comparing predictions with the real data. In one output parameter (“flock uniformity”), it was not possible to have adequate validation due to insufficient data in our database. For “number of dead birds per week”, “feed consumption”, “weekly weight” and “uniformity”, the most important variable was “flock age” (27.5%, 52.5%, 55.2% and 37.9%, respectively). For “number of eggs (eggs/hen)”, “uniformity” (52.1%) was the most relevant variable for prediction. For “weekly egg production”, “flock age” and “number of eggs (eggs/hen)” were the most important zootechnical parameters, both with a relative contribution of 38.2%. The results showed that even with the use of a robust tool such as ANNs, it is necessary to have well-noted and clear information that expresses the reality of the flocks. In any case, the results presented allow us to state that ANNs are capable for the management of data generated in a commercial egg production facility. The process of evaluation of these data would be improved if ANNs were routinely used by the professionals linked to this activity.

English

Climate change impacts negatively vulnerable regions such as West African countries like Senegal, through an increase of climate extremes. The objectives of this study is to analyze the future evolution of the extreme temperature events and their impacts on human health in Senegal during the cold (DJF), hot (MAM) and wet seasons (JAS) under the greenhouse gas scenarios RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 using Climate projections of five (5) regional climate models (RCMs) of the Coordinated Regional Climate Downscaling Experiment (CORDEX) program. The results show that the biases of the RCMs are globally low especially their ensemble mean of the RCMs. This ensemble mean was afterwards considered in the analysis of the climate extremes in the near (2021-2050) and far future (2071-2100). When considering the near future, the frequency of the hot nights (Tn90p) increases under the scenario RCP8.5 (up to 90%) during the rainy season in the south of the country. As for the percentage of the hot days (Tx90p), it may reach approximately 70% under the scenario RCP8.5 in DJF over the majority of the country. Moreover, a strong increase of Tn90p and Tx90p is also diagnosed during the far future with values exceeding 80% over most parts of the country. Concerning the evolution of the heat wave magnitude index-daily, the ensemble mean of all models shows that the heat waves are more severe in MAM and JAS under both scenarios during the near and the far future over most parts of the country. To estimate the potential impacts of this heat stress on the human health, the heat index and the humidex are used. The analysis of the heat index shows that the sanitary risks are more perceptible over the whole country during the rainy season with values reaching the symptom band II for both scenarios during the far future. As for the humidex, it is characterized by a gradual increase from the historical period to the far future. This analysis highlights the fact that appropriate adaptation measures should be considered to tackle efficiently the increase of temperature extremes which may impact negatively the human health. Key words: Regional climate models, CORDEX, climate indices, heat stress, climate scenarios, Senegal.

159 Laparoscopic insemination method in sheep allows the use of an animal protein-free and inexpensive freezing medium

Animal-derived products are widely used in sperm cryopreservation for their cryoprotective properties. These components, however, must be replaced because of sanitary risks. STEMALPHA.CRYO3 (Ref. 5617, Stem Alpha), called CRYO3, is a chemically defined preservation medium currently used for freezing human tissue and adult stem cells. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a CRYO3-based medium and of two cooling rates on invitro parameters and invivo fertility of ram sperm. Six rams (Blanche du Massif Central) were subjected to sperm collection four times using an artificial vagina. Sperm were split and frozen in three media: an egg yolk and milk-based medium (positive control), a CRYO3-based medium (tested medium), and a medium without additives (negative control). The two cooling rates were related to the distance between the straws and the surface of liquid nitrogen during the freezing process (5 and 20cm). Sperm membrane integrity (propidium iodide/SYBR-14), acrosome integrity (fluorescein isothiocyanate-peanut agglutinin/propidium iodide; FITC-PNA/PI), and mitochondrial membrane potential (JC-1) were assessed using flow cytometry, whereas functional membrane integrity was assessed using a hypo-osmotic swelling test and motion characteristics were evaluated using computer-assisted sperm analysis. Pregnancy rate, parturition rate, and prolificacy were evaluated after performing laparoscopic inseminations (n=75 ewes). Moreover, we characterised the freezing media thermodynamically using a differential scanning calorimeter. Statistical analyses were performed using R software. Invitro parameters were assessed using a mixed model including the time and the medium as fixed effects and the ram as a random effect. Pregnancy and parturition rates, following a binomial distribution, and prolificacy, assumed to follow a Poisson distribution, were analysed using generalised linear models, including the medium as a fixed effect and the ram as a random effect. Differences with P<0.05 were considered statistically significant. The cooling rates had no significant effect except on the wobble motion parameter. The positive control medium showed significantly higher results than the CRYO3-based medium and the negative control medium for all invitro parameters except for straightness motion parameter. Conversely, field trials showed no significant difference between the media for pregnancy rate (71, 64, and 74%), parturition rate (68, 61, and 74%) and prolificacy (2.0, 2.1, and 1.7), for the positive control, CRYO3-based medium, and the negative control, respectively. This study showed that the product, CRYO3, cannot replace egg yolk and milk in freezing extenders. Moreover, we showed that laparoscopic inseminations allowed a 74% parturition rate due to an easy and inexpensive medium comprising only a Tris buffer and glycerol. Although it could not be used on a large scale, this medium remains an option for international transport or long-term storage of genetic diversity.

Robustness of crop disease response to climate change signal under modeling uncertainties

Crop fungal diseases threaten food security in the dual context of a growing global population and a warming climate. Leaf rust is one of the most important wheat diseases which can result in yield losses of more than 40 %. When considering these crucial questions, innovative approaches to crop cultivation are clearly required. One essential prerequisite before the development of adaptive strategies to climate change, is to understand and forecast the potential impact of this change on fungal diseases, based on the use of modelling approaches. However, numerous epidemiological models are available; they vary considerably in terms of their complexity, and are based on hypotheses that oversimplify factors that influence the prediction of epidemics. During this study, we implemented six combinations of leaf wetness duration and infection efficiency models to simulate the future evolution of leaf rust of wheat, and compared the resulting trends. Daily and seasonal climatic indicators were inferred from the simulated infection efficiencies, from 1950 to 2100, with two contrasted Representative Concentration Pathways, RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5, at three sites representative of traditional French wheat production areas. The inferred indicators characterize the intensity and frequency of leaf rust infection, the length and calendar positioning of the longest sequences without infection, and the relevant microclimate. Their absolute values varied considerably depending on the model combinations used, even more than between the present and future climatic periods or RCP scenarios. However, the same trends were observed in the future, with climate change being a significant explanatory variable of the evolution of the six climatic indicators simulated. The results of combining these models showed that the climatic risk of both the frequency and intensity of leaf rust infection would increase during the autumn and winter seasons, and a distinct drop should be expected during the summer, enabling a longer risk-free period. Some important common trends were thus highlighted, reinforcing confidence in the robustness of the results. These findings should be taken into account when designing adaptive strategies that will sustain production under future abiotic stresses while minimizing sanitary risks.

Recent Advances in Management by Pheromones of Thaumetopoea Moths in Urban Parks and Woodland Recreational Areas.

Caterpillars of the pine processionary moths, Thaumetopoea complex, cause serious defoliation to Cedrus, Pinus, and Pseudotsuga trees. Thaumetopoea caterpillars also have fine hairs on their abdominal tergites that contain a protein that can severely irritate and cause dermatitis in humans and domestic animals. The control of the T. pityocampa pine processionary moth has become necessary in many European countries because of the sanitary risks that are related to larval urtication and the defoliation threat to pine forests and plantations. New research activities have been aimed at the development of eco-friendly, innovative technologies for Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of these moths, particularly in urban parks and woodland recreational areas. This paper describes the recent advances in the use of pheromones in monitoring, mass trapping, and mating disruption related to management of processionary moths T. hellenica and T. pityocampa. According to the results, the use of pheromones may provide a practical alternative to insecticide sprays, as they can be safe and simple as compared to other control methods.

Practical aspects of equine embryo transfer

This article focuses on practical aspects and most specific points of equine embryo transfer (EET). Induction of polyovylations in donor mares is not possible. Only the repetition of embryo collections can increase the number of foals from the same mares. At each oestrus, follow follicular growth and artificial inseminations are conducted in the same way as for any brood mare. It is essential to know the number and timing of ovulations at least a 12-hours accurency. Induction of ovulation is frequently required, GnRH agonists are used to do that. Embryos are flushed from the donor mare’s uterus, typically on day 7 or 8 after ovulation using a long (~1.5 m) and large (diameter 8 mm) Foley-type balloon-tipped catheter introduced by vaginal route just in front to cervix. Some practical details are important to EET practitioners, firstly, the embryos are easily located under stereo-microscope after filtration of flushing medium, and secondly most equine embryos are immediately transferred or after cooling at 4°C less than 24 hours. To have a recipient mare in the right stage of her oestrous cycle (D5 to D8 after ovulation) is the biggest and the most difficult challenge for EET practitioners because the synchronisation of oestrous and ovulations is very difficult to obtain. Therefore, embryos are transferred transcervically to the uterus of a recipient mare. Recently, a modified method using a speculum and a specific forceps seems to give a much better success rate than the conventional technique which requires a large training. The EET has regulatory constraints: regulations of different breeds allowing or not allowing the embryo transfer and sanitary European regulation concerning intra-community trade of equine embryos (Annex D to Council directive 92/65 EEC) and, in some countries, additional national regulation. The possible sanitary risks of ET in equine have been still little studied, and without International or European official registrations of EET activity, it is difficult to know the extent of the use of the technique around the world. The average success rate of embryo recovery is of the order of 40 to 50% depending on the fertility of the donor and the type of sperm used, the transfer success rate can reach 70 to 80% if the technique is well mastered by ET practitioners.

Drinking water quality in areas impacted by oil activities in Ecuador: Associated health risks and social perception of human exposure.

The unregulated oil exploitation in the Northern Ecuadorian Amazon Region (NEAR), mainly from 1964 to the 90's, led to toxic compounds largely released into the environment. A large majority of people living in the Amazon region have no access to drinking water distribution systems and collects water from rain, wells or small streams. The concentrations of major ions, trace elements, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes) were analyzed in different water sources to evaluate the impacts of oil extraction and refining. Samples were taken from the NEAR and around the main refinery of the country (Esmeraldas Oil Refinery/State Oil Company of Ecuador) and were compared with domestic waters from the Southern region, not affected by petroleum activities. In most of the samples, microbiological analysis revealed a high level of coliforms representing significant health risks. All measured chemical compounds in waters were in line with national and international guidelines, except for manganese, zinc and aluminum. In several deep-water wells, close to oil camps, toluene concentrations were higher than the natural background while PAHs concentrations never exceeded individually 2 ng·L-1. Water ingestion represented 99% of the total exposure pathways for carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic elements (mainly zinc) in adults and children, while 20% to 49% of the Total Cancer Risk was caused by arsenic concentrations. The health index (HI) indicates acceptable chronic effects for domestic use according the US-EPA thresholds. Nevertheless, these limits do not consider the cocktail effects of metallic and organic compounds. Furthermore, they do not include the social determinants of human exposure, such as socio-economic living conditions or vulnerability. Most (72%) of interviewed families knew sanitary risks but a discrepancy was observed between knowledge and action: religious beliefs, cultural patterns, information sources, experience and emotions play an important role front to exposure.

The Sanitary Impact of Air Pollution in North Africa

In the last century, multiple sanitary accidents happened due to the urban atmospheric pollution, especially on decembre 1952 in london where 4000 deaths took place following the apparition of a smog. The atmospheric pollution is responsible for the surge of a vast range of sanitary manifestations requiring ambulatory or hospital care. The sanitary risks linked to the atmospheric pollution are now well established. In Algeria, The big Algiers is, confronted to an intense atmospheric pollution. This pollution is even more distinguished in the large agglomerations of the developing countries.

ORGANIZATION TO ENSURE SANITARY AND ANTI-EPIDEMIC EVENTS FOR THE XXI WORLD CUP FIFA 2018 ON THE TERRITORY OF THE STAVROPOL KRAI

We summed up the work carried out by the Rospotrebnadzor Office in the Stavropol Krai and the Hygienic and Epidemiological Center in the Stavropol Krai during the preparation and hosting the 2018 FIFA World Cup events on the territory of the Stavropol Krai. The main activities were aimed at assessing and minimizing the sanitary and epidemiological risks in organizing accommodation, food, medical care for the arriving football team of Nigeria.

An overview of groundwater and sanitation challenges in Kisumu City, Kenya

The sub-surface is used in most parts of Africa as a repository of human waste and as a source of groundwater through pit latrines and shallow wells respectively. The wells provide freshwater to millions of people in Africa who are either not connected to the piped water or have intermittent supplies. These shallow wells are hand dug and therefore are mostly less than 20 meters in depth. This same sub-surface environment is also used as a repository of human waste through pit latrines. The water points and the sanitation facilities are mostly located close to each other. This study aimed at appraising the groundwater and sanitation challenges based on a rapid survey, sampling, interviews, existing literature review and historical borehole data in Kisumu city, Kenya. Previous studies in the area have shown that the number of shallow wells, city buildings, density of unimproved pit latrines and sanitary risks have increased tremendously between 1999 and 2019. Most of the wells are shallow and therefore prone to contamination by pollutants. Fluoride and chloride content in most boreholes are above the recommended WHO maximum values and the local KEBS standards. The study confirmed that the main water and sanitation challenges in Kisumu are poor and deteriorating water quality, poor waste disposal management systems and poor sanitation services. There is need for the introduction of new and sustainable groundwater approaches supported by scientific models and involving all stakeholders. Current deficiencies in the provision of adequate water and dignified sanitation to the poor in Kisumu can be remedied through improved knowledge on shallow aquifer dynamics and innovative research. It was noted that apart from the donor agencies and multi-national NGOs, the private investors are unwilling to invest in water projects in Kisumu due in part to government legislation that constrains the cost that may be levied on water

Characterization of Major Ion Chemistry and Hydro-Geochemical Processes in Mt. Elgon Trans-Boundary Aquifer and Their Impacts on Public Health

There is a gradual paradox shift from the utilization of surface water to groundwater in both urban and rural Kenya. This is because surface water is both diminishing in quantity due to climate variability and deteriorating in quality due to high levels of anthropogenic contamination. In the quest to attain the Sustainable Development Goal number 6 that aim at ensuring access to safe water by all by 2030, the Government of Kenya is encouraging the development of groundwater resources whose potential is enormous though it has not been quantified. The Inter-governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) supported this research on the shared Mt. Elgon trans-boundary aquifer between Kenya and Uganda aimed at understanding its dynamics. Mt. Elgon is a Tertiary age mountain that straddles the Kenya-Uganda border and has a trans-boundary aquifer. This study investigated the groundwater chemistry and its implication on water management and human health. Physico-chemical parameters of water that included electrical conductivity, pH, and temperature were measured in the field and the major cations and anions were measured at the Central Laboratories of the State Department for Water. Geological mapping and identification of sanitary risks were undertaken during the field work. The study revealed that the concentration of cations and anions in the groundwater varied spatially and temporally. Abundance of these ions were in the order Ca²⁺ > Na⁺ > Mg²⁺ > K⁺ for most samples and HCO₃⁻ > Cl⁻ > SO₄²⁻ >NO₃⁻. Interpretation of hydro-chemical data suggests that calcium carbonate dissolution, halite dissolution, Ca/Na ion exchange and Mg/Na ion exchange are the major processes that control the ground-water chemistry. Chemical results indicate further that the groundwater is suitable for domestic use but is threatened by both anthropogenic and geological factors. Extensive use of fertilizer and the destruction of the catchment area coupled with low permeability and rock-water interactions in the metamorphic rock terrains are the main threats to groundwater quality in the region. A few water points had water with some ionic composition exceeding WHO and the local KEBS maximum limits for drinking water. Such water pose a risk to human health. Keywords: Transboundary aquifer, groundwater chemistry, Human health, Carbonate dissolution, Mt. Elgo, Kenya DOI : 10.7176/JEES/9-4-06 Publication date : April 30 th 2019

Chronicle of a century of public health in Mexico: from public health to social protection in health.

This paper describes the creation of the legal framework and the origin, growth and consolidation of the institutions and interventions (initiatives, programs and policies) that nourished public health in Mexico in the past century. It also discusses the recent efforts to guarantee universal social protection in health. This quest, which lasted a century, developed through three generations of reform that gave birth to a health system that offers protection against sanitary risks, protection of health care quality and financial protection to all the population in the country.

Содержание меди в органах и тканях Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck, 1819 и поток её седиментационного депонирования в донные осадки в хозяйствах черноморской аквакультуры

Роль мидий в формировании химического состава морской воды определяется особенностями протекания в них сорбционных и трофодинамических процессов. Медь является жизненно необходимым элементом и в то же время занимает второе место по токсичности после ртути среди десяти металлов, токсическое действие которых проверено на эмбрионах мидий и устриц. Выявление закономерностей накопления содержания меди в органах и тканях моллюсков позволяет проанализировать как санитарно-гигиенические риски их продуктового использования при выращивании в марикультуре, так и их роль в биогеохимических процессах изменения состава морской среды в акваториях размещения мидийных плантаций. Цель работы ― определить содержание ионов меди в органах и тканях мидий в масштабе сезонного хода онтогенеза, проанализировать с использованием математической модели и эмпирических данных степень их накопления моллюсками при пищевом пути минерального питания и оценить влияние марихозяйств на процессы переноса меди в прибрежной экосистеме. Моллюски отобраны с коллекторов мидийной фермы, расположенной на внешнем рейде г. Севастополя. Для определения содержания меди в системе среда ― мидии ― биоотложения использован метод атомно-абсорбционной спектроскопии с электротермической атомизацией. Представлена общая модель процесса обмена меди между мидиями и морской средой. Предложены уравнения для определения степени усвоения из пищи ионов меди (q) и предельного коэффициента их накопления (Кп) по результатам измерений концентрации в рационе мидий, в мягких тканях и в биоотложениях без применения радиоактивных меток микроэлементов. Рассчитаны величины изъятия меди из морской среды мидийной фермой. Показана роль культивируемых моллюсков в осаждении тяжёлых металлов.

The survival of pathogenic bacteria and plant growth promoting bacteria during mesophilic anaerobic digestion in full-scale biogas plants.

The introduction of biogas plants is a promising way to recycle organic wastes with renewable energy production and reducing greenhouse gas. Application of anaerobic digestate as a fertilizer reduces the consumption of chemical fertilizers. In this study, the survival of pathogenic bacteria and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) in two full-scale biogas plants operated at mesophilic condition were investigated. Feedstock and anaerobic digestate samples were collected from biogas plants and bacteria load in samples were detected using standard dilution plate method. Pathogenic bacteria were reduced to not detected level through mesophilic digestion tank except for Campylobacter. However, it could be reduced by 98.7% through a sterilization tank. Bacillus was detected at 8.00 and 7.81 log10 CFU/g dry matter in anaerobic digestates, and it was also resistant to sterilization tank. Bacillus spp. is considered to be the safe bacteria that hold remarkable abilities for promoting plant growth. The results showed that treatment at biogas plants is effective to reduce pathogenic bacteria in dairy manure, and sterilization could further reduce the sanitary risks of pathogenic bacteria relating to anaerobic digestate application. Anaerobic digestates could also be utilized as bio-fertilizer as the high load of plant growth promoting bacteria.

Comparative morphology of the deer ked Lipoptena fortisetosa first recorded from Italy.

Hippoboscidae flies parasitize various animal species. Knowledge about these insects remains sparse, although they are known to cause stress and damage to their hosts, and can also accidentally infest humans, causing different sanitary risks. Research conducted in Tuscany assessing the biology and distribution of Lipoptena cervi (Linnaeus, 1758) (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), the most common ectoparasite of ungulates in Italy, revealed the presence of Lipoptena fortisetosa Maa, 1965 in Italy for the first time. This study includes a morphological comparative description of L. cervi and L. fortisetosa, emphasizing the peculiar differences between the two species to facilitate their accurate identification. The most pertinent morphological differences between the two species are highlighted, such as the external features of the antennae, distribution of bristles, and different features in the external genitalia. In both species, scanning electron microscopy of mouthparts revealed strong adaptive convergence in the feeding apparatus. Modified palps and a very thin proboscis are described in relation to feeding behaviour.

Zero discharge: Pilot project for biodegradation of cattle effluent by pyroclastic “lapilli” treatment for fodder irrigation

Livestock effluents are a nutrient supply that is beneficial for crops, so their use is essential to guarantee the sustainability of the global management of farms. Zero discharge cattle effluent management to irrigate fodder crops is a mitigation option, so it is considered a key factor for adaptation to climate change. This paper presents the result of an “on site” pilot scale (three-stage, vertical flow filtration system using lapilli). This is a low-cost solution in terms of finance and energy, which does not require the addition of chemicals, to treat a cattle effluent. The effluent's quality obtained allowed it to be injected in a drip system with low risks of obstruction. And the pilot system allowed to obtain elimination values for the main parameters of effluent's quality (TSS and COD, 98% and 80% respectively) similar or greater than the ones obtained in other treatments of low cost and energy, and gives values contemplated in reclaimed water reuse guidelines of many countries. Furthermore, elimination rate for the BOD5 obtained 35 mgL−1 in treated effluent. High removal rates were obtained for N, P, K, Cu, Fe and Mn, medium for Ca, Mg and Zn and low for B and Na. These shows that the pilot system and fodder crop combination provide an optimal solution to small farms, controlling sanitary risks. The tested flow allows the use of this system by conventional small farms, which represented 94% of total cow farms in Canary Islands.

Value chain analysis and sanitary risks of the camel milk system supplying Nairobi city, Kenya

The camel milk trade in Kenya has evolved significantly from a small-scale business undertaken in local villages to its current status involving a large number of different stakeholders supplying urban towns, particularly Nairobi City. Despite the evident growth pattern, the supply of camel milk to Nairobi has largely remained informal, with minimal enforcement of regulations. The aim of this study was to characterise the camel milk system supplying Nairobi and assess its governance, main challenges and the potential food safety risk practices.A value chain analysis framework was used to carry out data collection between August 2014 and July 2015. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews with stakeholders operating in different nodes of the value chains.Three milk value chains supplying Nairobi were identified and mapped: the Isiolo chain, the Kajiado chain and the camel milk processing company chain. Overall, the results indicate that 94% of the milk supplied to Nairobi city is informally traded (traded without any effective regulation), while 6% originates from a formal milk processing company. In the informal chains, milk traders (mostly women) were reported to play a pivotal role in the organisation and daily functioning of the chains. The processing company had partly integrated activities and reported exporting 5% of their products to regional and international markets.Food safety themes identified were associated with i) lack of cold chain, ii) gaps in hygiene practices, particularly at farm and market levels, iii) consumption of raw camel milk, and iv) lack of food safety training, among other issues. Low level involvement by government agencies in enforcing stipulated food safety measures were reported in the informal chains, as these concentrate efforts in the regulation of dairy milk chains. Isiolo milk traders were identified as the dominant group, setting milk prices and providing sanctions.The framework and findings obtained can help future research and policy makers to reach informed decision about what to regulate, where to target and importantly how to make the camel milk value chain more efficient and safer.

Assessment of bacteriological quality of groundwater from boreholes in Maroua (Far North Cameroon)

Groundwater (e.g. from wells and boreholes) represents an important source for water supply for populations in Maroua, Far north Cameroon. Although its consumption is being accentuated by the limited access to potable water, the quality of water from boreholes is unknown by the consumers. This study aimed at assessing the bacteriological quality of groundwater from boreholes in Maroua, in order to determine the impact of anthropogenic pressure and to measure the sanitary risks to which people who use them as drinking water sources are exposed. A total of 18 boreholes were chosen as sampling sites for bimonthly analyses (from October 2016 to January 2017). Microbiological analyses comprised the prevalence of total coliforms (TCs), Escherichia coli and Heterotrophic Aerobic and Mesophilic Bacteria (HAMB). Some physico-chemical parameters including temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDSs), salinity, dissolved CO2 were measured to characterize these waters and to determine their influence on the bacterial flora. The results showed that the pH of the water of the 18 boreholes varied from 6.3 to 7.5 CU; the lower value of temperature was 25.9 °C and the higher was 31.2 °C. The values of electrical conductivity, TDSs and Salinity fluctuated from 171.5 to 1910.3 μS/cm, 119.4 to 1331.3 mg/l and 79.2 to 970.3 ppm respectively in the water samples of these boreholes. The concentration of dissolved CO2 varied from 9.5 to 27.8 mg/l of water. From these results, 72.2% of analysed water samples were contaminated by the total coliforms and E. coli. The water contamination would be the consequence of the proximity of boreholes with latrines and domestic wastes. There is a need to educate the public about the quality of their water sources and the importance of clean and healthy surroundings near water sources and to implement household water treatment to improve the water quality and reduce waterborne diseases.Keywords: Bacteria, contamination, groundwater, sanitation.

Open Defecation Sites, Unmet Sanitation Needs, and Potential Sanitary Risks in Atlanta, Georgia, 2017-2018.

To survey the spatial distribution and enteric pathogen profile of discarded human feces in the city of Atlanta, Georgia. After defining priority search areas in central Atlanta, we conducted 5 searches of open defecation sites totaling 15 hours during the period from October 2017 to January 2018. We collected fresh stools for analysis via multiplex reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction to identify presence of 15 common parasitic, bacterial, and viral enteric pathogens. We identified and mapped 39 open defecation sites containing 118 presumptive human stools; 23% of the 26 collected fresh stools tested positive for 1 or more pathogens. An estimated 12% of stools were positive for enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, 7.7% for Giardia spp., 3.8% for norovirus, and 3.8% for Salmonella spp. The majority (92%) of identified open defecation sites were within 400 meters of a shelter or soup kitchen. Though this study was constrained by a small sample size, results suggest that open defecation in Atlanta is common and may pose risks to public health. Public Health Implications. Open defecation may pose health risks to people experiencing homelessness and the general public.

Milk Production and Sanitary Risk along the Food Chain in Five Cities in Burkina Faso

Livestock is the third largest currency provider in Burkina Faso after gold and cotton. The objective of this study was to assess the socio-economic characteristics of actors, level of production and sanitary risks along the food chain of local fermented milk. A literature search and an investigation were conducted. Sphinx Plus2-V5 software was used for data processing and analysis. Results obtained show that milk processing is essentially a female activity and Fulani is the most active tribe in the milk sector. The curdling is done mainly using a curdled whey. Nutritional characteristics of fermented milk depend on the milk used, the milking conditions, the technology used, and a good curd must have a pleasant smell with a sweet and sour taste. The precariousness of milking, the lack of training in hygiene, the ignorance of the rules of hygiene, the state of environment of processing/sale, the strong use of antibiotics, the negligence of campaigns of vaccinations, and the non-compliance with the waiting period generate significant sanitary risks for consumers and animals. Livestock is the mainstay of the white revolution in Burkina Faso and contributes to food and socio-economic security.