Sandy Podzol Research Articles

Cumulative dressings of potassium metaphosphate and soluble PK-fertilizers for seedlings and transplants ofPicea sitchensis in two English nurseries

Cumulative dressings of potassium metaphosphate tested on seedlings and transplants ofPicea sitchensis gave promising results from 1964 to 19661 at two nurseries — a sandy podsol and a sandy loam with better nutrient retention. The four experiments, which also included superphosphate alone, KC1/superphosphate, with and without topdressings of KNO3, and potassium dihydrogen phosphate, were continued until 1969. On the podsol, potassium metaphosphate maintained its superiority for seedlings and also left larger residues in the surface soil. It had no special merit on the sandy loam or for transplants on either soil.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ECOLOGY OF BRACKEN (PTERIDIUM AQUILINUM)

SummaryThe phenomena of change from the marginal belt to the hinterland on the acid sandy podsol of area E are regarded as symptoms of senescence (increase in age of the frond population and in patchiness: reduction in height and number of fronds, in size of plant and its rate of growth). They are considered in relation to causes, primary and secondary.The primary cause is the plant's reaction on itself: in the invading marginal plant increasing competition until the maximum number is reached (at 30–40 ft; 9–12 m) and reaction on the root and rhizome system through the amount and kind of litter. Once started a chain of reactions is set up in which frost and drought are important but secondary causes.Litter (s.l.) acts in two ways with opposing effects on the welfare of bracken but with no hard and fast line between them and the effect varying with the conditions. Litter (s.s. = the L layer) when abundant, as in the mid‐region of the marginal belt, means protection from winter frost and drought and by delaying emergence of the fronds reduces liability to spring frost and in its F and H forms induces a concentration of roots in them, a rise in the general level of the shoot system and greater vulnerability of the growing points to frost and drought. With age of the population the F and H layers increase relatively to the L (s.s.).Data on the vigour and vertical distribution of the rhizome system from an area (Blaxhall Heath) vacated by bracken and from the live bracken marginal to it show a similar robust but dead system in both, which in the latter has a younger, superficial, attenuated system, consisting mostly of intermediate and short shoots above it and lying almost wholly in the F layer. Details show that the process of degeneration has not only been checked but recently reversed.Response to fluctuations in weather show that the hinterland plant is not inherently weak, but its attainment of a size and vigour similar to that of the marginal plant depends on conditions enabling it to reach that status and to maintain it on the continued provision of open conditions with little competition.The interpretation of degeneration (regression) advanced here does not invoke the presence of a pathogen.The results are considered briefly in relation to the status of bracken in a man‐controlled environment.

Isobutylidene diurea and other nitrogen fertilizers for seedlings and transplants ofPicea sitchensis in two English forest nurseries

Three slow-release nitrogen fertilizers — medium- and coarse-sized granules of IBDU (isobutylidene diurea) and formalized casein — were applied before sowing or transplanting to Sitka sprucePicea sitchensis, and their effects on growth compared with that on plots not given N or given four topdressings of ‘Nitro-Chalk’ (the source of N used in practice). The comparisons were made at two sites: a very sandy podsol and a sandy loam with better nutrient retention. The experiments with seedlings were continued for four years, those with transplants for three, and the same treatments were applied to the same plots each year.

Residual value of basic slag, Gafsa rock phosphate and superphosphate in a sandy podzol

SUMMARYSurface soils (0–15 cm) from a field experiment on a sandy podzol were used to evaluate the residues from basic slag, Gafsa rock phosphate and superphosphate (using ryegrass in pots), and to measure the solubility and buffer capacity during cropping, and the distribution of the residual phosphate in different particle-size fractions of the soil.After applying P at about 3·6 g P/m2/year for 6 years, residues of the three P fertilizers were equivalent but after applying more P (9–11 g P/m2/year) for a further 8 years, basic slag and rock phosphate gave larger labile P values, were more effective for ryegrass and buffered soils more than residues of superphosphate. The percentage recoveries of P from the surface soils were approximately 7, 40 and 65 % of the total applied in 8 years as superphosphate, basic slag and rock phosphate respectively.Residues from basic slag (mainly 75–20 μm particles) accumulated in the < 20 μm fraction of the soil. Rock phosphate (mainly 200–20 μm particles) dissolved more slowly and about one-half of the material > 20 μm remained in the sand fractions of the soil.Residues from rock phosphate maintained values of ½pCa + pH2PO4 and pH–½pCa consistent with the solubility of fluorapatite, even when P was removed from the soil by exhaustive cropping with ryegrass. Residues from basic slag were more soluble than hydroxyapatite.

Sulphur as a nutrient for Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings and radish (Raphanus sativus) grown on a sandy podzol in England

SUMMARYExperiments with Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) seedlings grown on an acid sandy podzol at Wareham, Dorset, England showed that sulphur fertilizers improved the colour but not the height of the crop and increased sulphur concentrations in the needles above those considered by Ingestad (1962) to indicate sulphur deficiency for Norway spruce (Picea abies). Spruce seedlings grown on other soils (Oxford and Woburn) contained more sulphur than those grown at Wareham. Sulphur concentrations in transplants of both species were generally less when S-free basal fertilizers were used.Radish (Raphanus sativus) experiments confirmed that Wareham soil was low in available sulphur. Increased yields were obtained from elemental sulphur treatments during the springs of 1968 and 1969, but not the summer months, when more sulphur may have been mineralized in the warmer soil. Wareham is in an area with less sulphur in the rain and atmosphere than most other parts of England.

Soluble and slow-release PK-fertilizers for seedlings and transplants ofPicea sitchensis andPicea abies in two English nurseries

In a heathland nursery on an acid sandy podsol and in a nursery on moderately acid agricultural land, four PK fertilizers were compared with superphosphate alone, using seedlings and transplants of Sitka sprucePicea sitchensis and Norway sprucePicea abies as test crops. The four fertilizers were: 1) a compound prepared from KCl and superphosphate (KCl/superphosphate), 2) the same compound supplemented by three summer topdressings of potassium nitrate, 3) potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 4) potassium metaphosphate. Except for potassium nitrate all fertilizers were applied in the spring before sowing or transplanting.

THE FOREST HABITAT TYPES IN SOUTHEASTERN MANITOBA AND THEIR APPLICATION TO FOREST MANAGEMENT

A forest ecological land classification in southeastern Manitoba resulted in the description of 14 forest habitat types, including three subtypes. These are based on silviculturally significant differences of soil moisture and nutrient regime, which are interpreted through tangible features of the three ecosystem components: vegetation, soil, and landform. The types encompass the regional environment from the driest habitats on sand dunes to the wettest in low moor bogs and from the nutritionally poorest on siliceous sandy podzols to the richest on alluvial bottomlands.The classification is to serve as a basic framework for silvicultural practices in the area. Aspects of application to current forest management are discussed.

An Ecological Analysis of the Sand Dune Complex in Point Beach State Forest, Two Rivers, Wisconsin

1. A descriptive and interpretive analysis of the vegetation and physiographic and edaphic conditions of the open dune region and the series of forested Post-Nipissing beach ridges and sloughs at Point Beach State Forest, Two Rivers, Wisconsin, was made by means of qualitative and quantitative data. The open dunes were studied by quadrat sampling of vegetation and line-intercept analysis along transects from lake to forest margin. The tree, shrub, and herbaceous layers of the wooded ridges were sampled by series of nested quadrats. Soil profiles were analyzed in the open dunes and in forest areas. 2. Beach grass, sandreed grass, and dune-building shrubs are characteristic of the more exposed habitats with sandreed grass as the chief blowout colonizer. The widespread little bluestem association constitutes an important seral stage following stabilization of actively moving sand. Mat-forming woody plants also close over the open sand until both communities are overshadowed by a shrubby stratum of ground juniper along the forest margin. 3. Correlations between diverse dune environments and variations in ecological amplitude of the various dune species permit successful growth of some type of vegetation in each of the dune habitats. As the present foredune barrier to wind activity seems able to withstand high-level wave erosion, the open dune area may well be on its way to progressive plant succession and to stabilization. 4. While the forest vegetation exhibits a marked heterogeneity in every stratum, particularly the herbaceous, there is an over-all uniformity in that the same diversified vegetation occurs in a clumped, irregular, and sometimes discontinuous distribution throughout the forest. 5. Dominant trees in the young forest canopy (70-85 years old) are white pine, hemlock, paper birch, and red maple, while red pine, white cedar, and yellow birch are of secondary importance and red oak occurs as an understory tree. Both the occurrence and type of shrub and herbaceous vegetation correspond to the nature and density of the arborescent stratum. 6. Both field observations and historical evidence indicate that a long-established vegetation was destroyed by heavy cutting and fire within the last century. At present the entire forest seems to be in the same general secondary successional stage and shows signs of good recovery. 7. The slough vegetation is subject to irregular progressions and regressions correlated with precipitation and lake-level fluctuations within an over-all successional progression from open water through sedge and thicket stages to early trees. 8. At present the forest exhibits features of the pine-hemlock complex of sandy podzol soils and of the hemlock-red maple communities intermediate between bog and developed hemlock-hardwood forests. The climax could conceivably be some gradient pattern combining elements of both types. 9. Apart from some variations arising from different geographic locations and the greater age and taller formations of the southern shore dunes, the Point Beach area is similar to these dunes in beach-ridge origin, in processes of dune development and stabilization, in the characteristics of vegetation and soil, and in retrogressive stages resulting from windthrow, cutting, and fire.

THE PRODUCTION OF ANTIBIOTICS IN SOIL: II. PRODUCTION OF GRISEOFULVIN BY PENICILLIUM NIGRICANS

A study has been made of the conditions affecting production of griseofulvin by Penicilliiim nigricans in two types of soil, an acid, sandy podsol from Wareham Heath and a garden soil. The characteristic morphogenetic response of many fungi to low concentrations of griseofulvin was made the basis of a highly specific bioassay.The essential prerequisites for production of griseofulvin in either soil were sterilization and enrichment with organic matter; no griseofulvin could be detected in autoclaved soil which had not been supplemented or in normal soil even when organically enriched. Garden soil was a better medium for growth of P. nigricans and production of griseofulvin than Wareham soil although this soil could be improved in this respect by liming.The yield of griseofulvin was decreased in soil re‐infected by other soil organisms, particularly by some which were known to produce antifungal antibiotics, e.g. Penicilliunr expansum, P. frequentons and two strains of Trichoderma viride. The antagonism shown to Penicilliunz nigricuns was not entirely a matter of antibiotic activity, as some fungi believed not to produce antifungal substances had an antagonistic effect. These were mostly fungi with a characteristically rapid growth rate, e.g. Mucor rarnmannianus and one strain of Trichoderma riride. In some cases Penicillium nigricans was itself antagonistic to other fungi irrespective of their ability to produce antibiotics or of their fast‐growing habit.The results were compared with those obtained from a previous study of the soil conditions affecting the production of gliotoxin by Trichoderma viride. A higher level of nutrient was required for the production of griseofulvin, and the effect of antagonism by other soil micro‐organisms was more important than in the production of gliotoxin by T. viride in the soil.

Micro-fungal Population of Acid Sandy Podsols

WE would like to direct attention to the remarkable similarity between the composition of the micro-fungal population of some acid sandy podsol soils in England, as recorded by Jeffreys, Brian, Hemming and Lowe1, and that of some acid podsol soils in Victoria, Australia2. This similarity is associated with the presence in the B-horizon of what is described as an iron-pan in the English soils.

Sphagnum Bogs of the New England Plateau, New South Wales

Although Sphagnum bog communities in Australia occupy only relatively small areas they are really quite abundant and constitute an important part of the subalpine and montane vegetation of the highlands. Very few descriptions of Australian bogs have yet been published. Crocker & Eardley (1939) have described a bog in the south-east of South Australia and McLuckie & Petrie (1927) some Sphagnum communities on Mount Kosciusko. Costin (unpublished) has also investigated certain aspects of bog formation in the latter area. However, it may be stated that no detailed work comparable with that done in Great Britain or Europe has yet been attempted in Australia. The chief aim of this paper is to record the occurrence of bogs in the New England district and to present a preliminary description which will serve not only as a basis for further investigations in Australia, but also as a comparison for northern hemisphere equivalents. The bog communities examined are found on the higher eastern part of New England in the Snowy Range. Fig. 1 shows the location of the moss communities examined. They occur most frequently, and show most active and extensive development above 1067 m., but only in areas where a constant supply of surface or seepage water is available. The adjacent soils of the upper slopes of the valleys are krasnozems and chocolate soils, brown podsols, alpine humus podsols and white sandy podsols (Hallsworth, Costin, Gibbons & Robertson, 1952; Costin, Hallsworth & Woof, 1952). On the lower slopes and valley floors, the catenic sequence is from upslope meadow podsols to deep bog peats in the permanently saturated lowlands. The pH of the bog springs, inflowing streams and marginal laggs is acid to almost neutral (4-6-6-8), more acid inflows being found where Sphagnum* communities occur downslope of fringing heath-sedge-restionaceous communities. The pH of the waters of bogs in the higher parts of the plateau towards Point Lookout is always nearer the lower end of the range, i.e. pH 4-5.

THE PRODUCTION OF ANTIBIOTICS IN SOIL

Conditions affecting the production of gliotoxin by a strain of Trichoderma viride, known to produce this antibiotic in synthetic culture media, were studied in two types of soil, a highly acid, sandy podsol from Wareham Heath and a less acid garden soil. High yields of an antibiotic substance, which results from bioassays showed to be similar to gliotoxin, were obtained from both inoculated soils when autoclaved and supplemented with organic material. The autoclaved soils behaved differently when unsupplemented; Wareham soil supported production of the antibiotic but little or none was produced in the garden soil. No antibiotic activity could be demonstrated in soil which had not been inoculated with T. viride.Acidification of unsupplemented garden soil by addition of sulphuric acid had a favourable effect on production of the antibiotic, but raising the pH of Wareham soil by addition of calcium hydroxide also increased the yield. These effects, therefore, cannot be due simply to the change in pH of the soil.The beneficial effect of autoclaving the soil on production of the antibiotic assumed to be gliotoxin was analysed and separated into three distinct effects, elimination of the microflora, increase in availability of nitrogen compounds and increase in available carbon compounds. The last effect was considered to be of greatest significance.The antibiotic was produced in normal Wareham soil if supplemented with additional carbon compounds, but not in garden soil unless this had also been acidified before inoculation. A chromatographic method of bioassay used in the later work gave more substantial evidence that the antibiotic produced in the soil was, in fact, gliotoxin.

New soil fungi from Australian heathland: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Spegazzinia

Five new species of soil fungi are described and figured. These have been isolated from a sandy podzol supporting a characteristic heathland flora.

Antibiotic production by the microfungi of acid heath soils.

SUMMARY: A study has been made, using a plating technique, of the fungi occurring in acid sandy podsol soils and of their distribution at different levels of the soil profile. The most widespread species, characteristic of this type of soil, included: Absidia orchidis, Mortierella alpina, Mucor ramannianus, Penicillium frequentans, P. nigricans, P. roqueforti, P. terlikoiwskii and Trichoderma viride. A number of other species were locally abundant, including Absidia glauca, Conio-thyrium sp., Gliocladium sp. (roscum series), Penicillium citrinum and Zygorhyncus moelleri. The plate counts of viable fungal units decreased sharply from upper to lower levels, though there was occasionally a secondary maximum in the upper part of the B horizon. Most species were characteristically found most abundantly in upper layers of the A horizon, but Mucor ramannianus was notable for its abundance at much lower levels; in several of the profiles examined it was isolated in almost pure culture from the B horizon. Of the sixty-five species isolated, about half produced antibiotics. Most of these were toxic to fungi and bacteria; only a few cases of specific antifungal or antibacterial activity were encountered. The Phycomycetes differed from other groups in that none produced antifungal substances. The capacity to produce antifungal antibiotics appears to be correlated with the distribution of species; of the widespread and locally abundant fungi, 45% produced such antibiotics as compared with 15% of the rare fungi. Nevertheless, certain widespread species (e.g. Absidia orchidis, Mortierclla alpina, Mucor ramannianus, Penicillium roqueforti) did not produce antifungal antibiotics, so it cannot be considered to be a necessary character of widespread soil fungi. There is some evidence that such widespread non-producers of antibiotics are relatively resistant to the antibiotics produced by other species. An attempt has been made to group the fungi isolated into Burges' ecological categories of ‘sugar-fungi’ and ‘humus-fungi’ on the basis of their capacity to attack and utilize carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Only 26% of the fungi were unable to utilize CMC, Phycomycetes being prominent among these. Whereas 35% of the rare fungi and 54% of locally abundant fungi were ‘sugar-fungi’, only 17% (all Phycomycetes) of the widespread fungi were ‘sugar-fungi’. These results are believed to lend support to the view that antibiotic production is of ecological significance to soil fungi. They also provide information which can form the basis of an experimental search for more direct evidence.

The Distribution and Fixation of Potassium in the Profile of Brown Podzolic Soils and Sandy Podzols

The Distribution and Fixation of Potassium in the Profile of Brown Podzolic Soils and Sandy Podzols

Relationship of Soils to Manganese Deficiency of Plants

MANGANESE deficiency disease is confined to soils of pH. 6.7 or more and occurs especially on heavily limed sandy podsols. Most neutral and alkaline soils, however, evidently contain ample quantities of manganese in a form available to plants. A method of chemical analysis has been found which appears to measure the amount of this available manganese.