Sand Specimens Research Articles

Stabilization and Recycling of Sand in Pedestrian Walkways

The production of construction and demolition waste (CDW) in urban areas is growing rapidly. While the storage and disposal of CDW waste is costly, its recovery can help to conserve natural resources. This study investigates the characteristics of recycled sand obtained from the processing of CDW waste and the possibility of its reuse for pedestrian pathways. Physico-chemical and mineralogical characteristics of the recycled sand were investigated for its reuse. The percentage of fine particles in sand (below 0.63 μm) is 2.8%. The grain size of sand fulfills the particle size requirement of French standards. The methylene blue value of sand is 0.05 g/100 g. The GTR classification of recycled sand is D2 which is insensitive to water and suitable for road applications. A mineralogical analysis of soil shows that quartz, albite and microcline are important minerals in recycled sand. XRF analysis shows that CaO and SiO2 are major oxides in the recycled sand. The characterization of sand was followed by a manufacturing of cylindrical specimens of sand to observe the compressive strength. Samples were compacted with dynamic compaction by applying the Proctor normal energy of 600 kN·m/m3. The compressive strength testing of specimens shows that non-stabilized sand samples have compressive strength around 0.1 MPa which is considerably lower for its reuse in pedestrian pathways and road applications. Due to the low bearing capacity of sand, recycled sand was stabilized with the addition of binders such as Rolac (hydraulic binder), ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and ECOSOIL® (slag mixes) with different percentages of the binder ranging from 0 to 7% for the optimization of the binder and for economic efficiency. The compressive strength of sand samples increases with the increasing percentage of the binder. The increase in strength is more important with a higher percentage of binders (5%, 6% and 7%). At a 7% binder addition, specimens with Rolac, GGBS and ECOSOIL binders show the compressive strength of 1.2 MPa, 0.5 MPa and 0.5 MPa. At a 7% Rolac addition, specimens have a compressive strength higher than 1 MPa and meet the strength requirement for soil reuse in the foundation and subbase layers of roads with low traffic. The experimental work shows that recycled sand can replace conventional quarry sand for road applications and pathways with the addition of a local binder, which is an eco-friendly and economical practice.

Particle breakage characteristics and grading evolution of calcareous sand under various stress paths

Stress path is a key factor affecting the particle breakage of calcareous sand. In this study, the effects of stress path variations on calcareous sand particle breakage were investigated through triaxial compression tests across four distinct stress paths. Additionally, the gradation evolution of calcareous sand during particle breakage was analyzed. Furthermore, the correlation between the total input energy and characteristic particle size was investigated through energy dissipation analysis. The results indicated that the relative breakage index increases gradually with an increase in the maximum deviatoric stress and final volumetric strain, irrespective of the stress path. However, the dilatancy of calcareous sand is related to the relative breakage index as well as the stress path. Notably, the relationship between the relative breakage index and the total input energy can be represented using a power function. A gradation evolution model was formulated based on the results of energy dissipation analysis, and its validity was verified. The results confirmed the model’s effectiveness in predicting the particle breakage evolution in both single-gradation and continuous-gradation calcareous sand specimens, accounting for the effects of the various stress paths.

Relation between liquefaction resistance and shear modulus of crushable volcanic soils

Pumice-rich soils originating from volcanic eruptions are deposited in various parts of the world, such as in the central region of North Island, NZ. The pumice sand components of these natural pumiceous (NP) soils are known to be crushable and lightweight, resulting in a significant difference in their cyclic resistance ratio (CRR) and small-strain shear modulus (Gmax) when compared to hard-grained (quartz) sands. In this paper, the results of a number of cyclic triaxial and bender element tests performed on reconstituted specimens of three types of NP sands having different pumice contents (PC), as well as on quartz-type Toyoura sand specimens, are discussed. Then, the concept of modified cyclic yield strain, εay,m, which relates the CRR of the specimen to its Gmax, is used. The results indicate that εay,m appears to be dependent only on the soil type, and independent of the confining pressure applied and the relative density of the specimen. All NP sand specimens show higher εay,m when compared to Toyoura sand because of their higher CRR and lower Gmax, with values of εay,m increasing as the PC of the specimen increases. Based on the results obtained, an empirical chart is developed to estimate the CRR of NP sands from their shear wave velocity (Vs) values under field conditions.

Mechanical Properties and Micromechanism of Calcium Sand–Cement Mortar Modified With Zirconium Dioxide and Basalt Fiber

In this paper, the modification effect of basalt fiber (BF) and nano‐zirconium dioxide on calcareous sand–cement mortar was studied according to the actual situation of the island construction project. Mechanical tests were carried out on specimens of calcareous sand–cement mortar doped with different dosages of BFs and nano‐zirconium dioxide, and the effects of BFs and nano‐zirconium dioxide on the compressive properties of calcareous sand–cement mortar were analyzed by using the unconfined compression test study and the modification mechanism was elaborated by using: (1) the stress–strain curves of calcium sand–cement mortar are all softened hump‐like convex curves, and the residual stresses tend to a stable constant value. (2) BF at 0.6 wt% was the optimum dosing and increased the compressive strength by 66%–94%, 55%–65%, and 44%–63%, respectively, compared to that of calcareous sand–cement mortar as the age of maintenance increased. The compressive strength of nano‐zirconium dioxide–cement was increased by 49.2%, 79.1%, 101.1%, and 95.4% at the dosage of 4%, 6%, 8%, and 10%, respectively, and the optimum dosage was 8% compared to that of calcareous sand–cement mortar. (3) BFs are interspersed in the cement mortar, forming a dense mesh structure, wrapping and binding the cement mortar, and playing the role of anchoring reinforcement under external load. Nano‐zirconium dioxide due to its filling and induced catalytic role in the formation of a certain plate‐like structure, so that it and the calcium sand–cement mortar between the overall more compact, improving the compactness of the specimen.

Characterisation of the heterogeneity of a sand specimen in triaxial compression using x-ray CT and representative elementary volumes

Standard laboratory tests, such as the triaxial test, are often considered to be element tests. But, when observing such a test, it becomes obvious that this assumption of homogeneity is far from accurate. The localisation of strain is often visible to the naked eye and becomes even more obvious when observed on the grain scale. Other variables, such as those describing the soil fabric, are expected to localise as well. In this work, two sand samples are analysed at different loading states regarding the heterogeneity of three soil variables: void ratio, coordination number and contact orientation anisotropy. For this purpose, the size of a Representative Elementary Volume (REV) is determined using three criteria: the convergence of the mean and variance of the variables with increasing element size as well as a χ2-test. The size of the REV is varying depending on the chosen variable but almost the same for the two specimens when related to the mean grain diameter d50. The REV is placed in a regular grid throughout the specimen and the three variables are determined for each REV. The stochastic as well as spatial heterogeneity is identified for each specimen. As one of the samples is analysed for different loading states throughout a triaxial test, the evolution of the soil heterogeneity is identified. A localisation of all three variables can be observed at the end of the triaxial test as well as a strong initial heterogeneity for both sand samples.

Seepage deformation characteristic of gap-graded coral sand in the South China Sea

Foundation settlement and collapse disasters resulting from seepage deformation in hydraulic-filled islands and reefs have been observed in the South China Sea, but the underlying failure mechanism and characteristic remain unclear. This study aims to investigate the influence of compactness and fine particle content on the seepage deformation of gap-graded coral sand and revel the characteristics and mechanism of seepage deformation of gap-graded coral sand through laboratory seepage deformation tests. The results indicate that the seepage deformation failure mode of gap-graded coral sand is influenced by the content of fine particles which undergo an evolution process from continuous piping to discontinuous piping to boiling. Particle loss is affected by the constraints between coarse particles, and the ability of different particle contact forms to restrict the loss of fine particles is different. Moreover, irregular particle morphology increases intergranular constraints, enhancing the coral sand's resistance to seepage deformation compared to standard quartz sand. Based on these findings, the instability coefficient was used to consider the influence of particle morphology and inter-particle contact on the seepage deformation. A hydraulic criterion for the internal stability of coral sand was established, demonstrating its versatility. Furthermore, the applicability of existing geometric criteria in evaluating coral sand was analyzed. The existing methods were found to be inaccurate in evaluating the internal stability of coral sand specimens with a fine particle content below 20 %.

Mikrobiyolojik Yöntemle Çimentolanmış Kum Örneginin Üç Eksenli Kesme Davranışı Ve Mikroyapısının Incelenmesi

The use of bacteria induced calcite cementation for ground improvement presents a relatively new option for geotechnical engineers, one that has the potential to revolutionize the way that we improve soils to prevent liquefaction-induced damage. This technique uses non-pathogenic organisms which are found naturally in the soil environment to cement sand particles together at their particle-to-particle contacts. There is significant potential for a reduction in environmental concerns on various types of projects; in the long-term, this technique may also prove to be an extremely sustainable form of ground improvement. Consequently, the goal of the research described herein is to enhance the state-of-the-art with respect to our understanding of controlling biological cementation processes in soil. Bio-treatment of sand specimens was performed using a commonly encountered urea-producing soil microorganism called Sporosarcina Pasteurii (ATCC-6453). Microorganisms that were suspended in solution were introduced to the soil, and over time the microorganisms were supplied with necessary nutrients via cycling with a peristaltic pump. After bio-treatment, the specimens were back pressure saturated, isotropically consolidated, and sheared under undrained conditions. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging was performed to examine the soil microstructure over a range of specimen curing periods to assess the nature of any cementitious bonds that may have formed.

Experimental and numerical investigation of badarpur sand subjected to air-blast loading

In the present study, the results of experimental and numerical investigation of Badarpur sand subjected to air-blast loading generated from a laboratory-scale blast simulator are presented. The air-blast loading on the sand specimen is simulated experimentally using a vertical shock tube test facility to investigate the stress wave attenuation and vibrational characteristics of the Badarpur sand. The peak stress wave pressure and peak particle acceleration are recorded using the synchronized pressure transducers and triaxial accelerometers embedded inside the sand specimen. A stress enhancement of about 1.25-2.69 times the peak over-pressure is observed at the top one-third layer of the sand due to its compaction by the stress wave generated upon the blast wave impact. The stress wave intensity first increases and then rapidly decreases with the depth of the sand specimen. The amplitude of the peak particle acceleration is also observed to attenuate with the depth of the sand specimen. Further, based on the experimental results, the empirical equations are developed to predict peak particle velocity against the scaled distance with a power law index of 3.9, 2.5, and 3.0 for dense-coarse, dense-fine, and medium-dense fine sand, respectively. The numerical model of the vertical shock tube and sand specimens are also developed based on the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation, commercially available in finite element simulation package LS DYNA and the results are validated with the experimental data.

Experimental study on the effect of cementation curing time on MICP bio-cemented tailings

Tailings dam break and leakage accidents usually threaten the safety of people around the mining area. In addition, tailings leakage seriously pollutes the surrounding environment. In view of the above problems, the tailing sand is solidified based on the microbial induced calcite precipitation (MICP). This method can not only enhance the strength of tailing sand, but also solidify heavy metals in tailings. In order to optimize the curing time of MICP bio-cemented tailings, improve the strength and cost-effectiveness, this study used the layered injection method to cement the tailings. Combined with the unconfined compressive strength, calcium carbonate content and heavy metal leaching effect of MICP bio-cemented tailings, the effect of MICP curing time on bio-cemented tailings was analyzed. The results showed that the curing time of MICP bio-cemented tailings has a great influence on the strength of tailings, and has little effect on the fixation of heavy metals in tailings. The curing time of the optimized MICP biocemented tailings is 10 days. The unconfined compressive strength of the MICP bio-cemented tailing sand specimen is 1.01 MPa. When the cementation curing time is greater than 10 d, the cementation curing time will no longer be the main factor affecting the MICP bio-cemented tailings. After the MICP bio-cemented tailings samples were leached for 5 days, the fixation rates of Pb2+, Zn2+, total Fe, Mn2+, Cu2+, Cd2+ and total Cr in the leaching solution were 100%, 100%, 100%, 94.80–98.45%, 100%, 100%, 93.34–95.56%, respectively. The results of FTIR, XRD, SEM and EDS showed that when the tailings were cemented and solidified many times the cementation liquid metabolized by Sporosarcina pasteurii was mainly used for the growth of existing calcium carbonate crystals rather than the formation of new calcium carbonate crystals. The deposition of these larger calcium carbonate crystals can stably fill the gaps between the tailings particles, cement the tailings particles together and improve the strength of the tailings.

Effects of partial saturation on the liquefaction resistance of sand and silty sand from Christchurch

The liquefaction resistance of partially saturated soil was experimentally investigated for one clean sand and one silty sand collected from a site in Christchurch, in an area severely affected by liquefaction in the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquakes. A series of cyclic undrained tests were performed on fully and partially saturated sand and silty sand specimens, in conjunction with evaluation of saturation conditions in situ based on comprehensive field measurements of P-wave velocity (Vp) in Christchurch deposits. The Skempton’s B-value and P-wave velocity were comparatively used as measures for partial saturation in the laboratory. B-value - Vp relationships from the test results indicate that Vp steadily increases with the B-value until a threshold B-value is reached beyond which Vp remains unchanged at values indicating full saturation, i.e. Vp ;≥ ;1600 ;m/s. In general, the liquefaction resistance of tested sand and silty sand increases with a decrease in the B-value or Vp, i.e. with a reduction in the degree of saturation. Furthermore, test results suggest existence of threshold B-values and Vp for tested soils beyond which no significant increase in the liquefaction resistance was observed. This threshold B-values and Vp were found to be dependent on soil type and applied confining stress. The effects of partial saturation on liquefaction strength are different for the sand and silty sand when using Vp as a measure for the degree of saturation. While a gradual rate of increase in liquefaction strength with decreasing Vp is observed for the tested sand, the liquefaction strength of silty sand shows similar gradual increase with a decrease in Vp up to about 800 ;m/s, which is then followed by an abrupt increase in the liquefaction strength for Vp ;< ;800 ;m/s. Generally good agreement between liquefaction strength of tested soils and published data was observed, with a clear distinctive feature in the behaviour of the silty sand as compared to clean sands.

Mechanical behavior of reservoirs with heterogeneous hydrate distribution: Analysis from the thickness and angle of the hydrate-bearing layer

The heterogeneity of natural hydrate-bearing sediments (HBSs) makes it of great engineering significance to investigate the mechanical properties of heterogeneous HBSs and develop an efficient method to determine their strength parameters. In this study, heterogeneous hydrate-bearing clayey sand specimens were prepared by controlling the water distribution in host specimens. The hydrate-bearing layers in the prepared specimens have similar hydrate saturation, different thicknesses and angles. Multistage triaxial experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of hydrate-bearing layer thickness (HBLT) and angle (HBLA) on the stress-strain behavior and strength parameters of the specimens under differing effective confining stresses. The results show that the specimens produce bulging deformation and strain-hardening failure mode. Within the study scope, the strain-hardening degree of the stress-strain curve decreases with increasing HBLT and decreasing HBLA. The failure strength of the specimen initially increases and then decreases with increasing HBLT, peaking at 6 cm HBLT; however, it is positively correlated with HBLA. As HBLT increases, the cohesion increases exponentially, while the internal friction angle initially increases and then decreases. HBLA contributes to a linear increase in both cohesion and internal friction angle. Empirical equations for the cohesion and internal friction angle of heterogeneous specimens were formulated by replacing the heterogeneity with homogeneous elements, and their validity was verified. Under high effective confining stress, in the initial deformation stage, the shear stress applied to specimens with HBLT larger than 6 cm gradually increases with the increasing HBLT, while the thickness of the hydrate-free layer, which is susceptible to deformation response under external load, decreases. Consequently, the number of broken and damaged hydrates in these specimens increases. In the following shear process, failed hydrates prevent the pores from being compressed and serve as lubrication, leading to a reduction in the strain-hardening degree of the stress-strain curve and a reduction in failure strength. HBLA changes the contact area between hydrate-bearing and hydrate-free layers, as well as the axial distribution of hydrates, thus influencing the mechanical behavior of the specimen.

Mechanism of the variation in axial strain of sand subjected to undrained cyclic triaxial loading explained by DEM with non-spherical particles

The mechanical response of sand is affected by the axial strain accumulated during undrained cyclic triaxial loading tests. However, the large deformation that occurs during the post-liquefaction stage is difficult to measure using testing apparatus. To address this limitation, this research utilizes the numerical method of DEM with non-spherical particles to simulate the undrained cyclic triaxial loading test on clean sand material. The validity of DEM is confirmed through laboratory test. A four-stage scheme for the development of axial strain in the liquefaction process is proposed and verified by analyzing the deformation features of sand specimens with different densities. Meanwhile, the macroscopic behavior is also described in conjunction with microscopic characteristics of sand particles, such as coordination number, force chain network and anisotropy degree of contact normal, which are calculated using DEM. In addition, the central value of variating axial strain at each cycle is analyzed to determine its variation feature via loading cycle. Due to the capability of DEM in describing the microscopic behavior of soil particle aggregation, it is found that the difference in the proposed four-stage scheme between compression and extension sides is the main cause of the central value of axial strain shifting monotonically.

Contactless estimation of soil moisture using leaky Rayleigh waves and a fully convolutional network

AbstractSoil moisture is a key factor that influences various aspects of ecosystem functioning. Measuring soil moisture without installing any objects in the soil is desirable because it allows for accurate characterizations of soil moisture while minimizing impacts on soil structure and ecology. In this study, we explored the potential of leaky Rayleigh waves as a proxy to contactlessly estimate soil moisture. We developed an ultrasonic system containing a transducer, receivers, and acoustic barrier. The specimens of sand, silt, and clay were utilized. Experiments were conducted over 4 months. We used a widely used soil‐embedded moisture sensor to compare and develop relationships between leaky Rayleigh waves and soil moisture. Our results showed that as soil moisture increased, the velocity and amplitude of leaky Rayleigh waves decreased because water molecules attracted to the soils led to their attenuation. However, their magnitudes were not considerable except for very dry soils. To overcome these limited relations to estimate soil moisture from leaky Rayleigh waves, we constructed authentic images based on the observed leaky Rayleigh waves and used them as inputs for a fully convolutional network. We found that the combination of the ultrasonic system and deep learning approach developed in this study were suitable for estimating soil moisture without soil disturbances (RMSE = 0.01 m3 m−3). This study suggests that leaky Rayleigh waves have the potential to serve as a reliable proxy for determining soil moisture without the need for physical contact.

Evaluating Sand Particle Surface Smoothness Using a New Computer-Based Approach to Improve the Characterization of Macroscale Parameters

The analysis of sands, and the foundation systems with which they interact, are largely dependent on macroscale behavioral parameters that represent the aggregated response of several microscale characteristics. This research paper examines the influence of surface texture, or smoothness, on the behavior of sands. The challenge of estimating or measuring smoothness, due to its microscale feature domain, is addressed through an examination of six artificially graded sand specimens. These specimens are evaluated both visually and numerically to characterize their surface smoothness. The first approach described is a simple visual method that uses a smoothness scale consistent with those of roundness and sphericity. This method, which can be performed with a tool as simple as a hand lens, evaluates a group of representative particles collectively. The second approach is also a visual evaluation, but it utilizes images obtained via scanning electronic microscopy, traditional optical microscopy, and newer low-cost digital microscopes that can be rapidly connected to a smartphone or laptop. To validate these visual estimates, a novel third approach is introduced. This approach is a more objective numerical analysis measurement technique that enables rapid and economic quantification of smoothness. This technique may assist both practitioners and academics in their understanding of the macroscale response of coarse-grained soils. In addition to the visual methods, this research also conducted several laboratory index tests to observe the mechanical behavior of the specimens, considering their particle shape and surface smoothness properties. The results indicate that angular sands have greater minimum and maximum void ratios, a larger difference between the minimum and maximum void ratios, greater critical state friction angles, and greater flow rates through an orifice of fixed size. When adjusted for surface smoothness using the proposed approach, the behavior of the sands—particularly the limit void ratio results—appears to be more predictable in some cases. These results provide additional evidence of particle smoothness contributing to the strength behavior of sand, which may be particularly useful in the domains of slope stability, land reclamation, soil–structure interaction, and soil dynamics.

Influence of X-Ray beam exposure on the development of gas bubbles during triaxial testing of sand using 3D synchrotron micro-computed tomography

The constitutive behavior of granular materials is highly influenced by the degree of saturation and whether a saturated or unsaturated framework is adopted to model the behavior of granular materials. Conventional axisymmetric triaxial compression (CTC) testing of saturated specimens tends to assume that the specimen remains saturated during shearing. X-ray computed tomography (CT) has allowed for 3D in-situ measurements beyond the global scale to investigate microscale and localized events such as fabric evolution. The literature reported several CT-coupled geotechnical experiments of saturated specimens; however, no study examined how X-ray exposure might affect the specimen, specifically the radiolysis of pore water. In this study, we present the synchrotron micro-computed tomography (SMT) results of experiments performed on sand specimens without shearing (acrylic tubes) and with shearing (CTC experiments) to assess the influence of X-ray exposure on the development of the gas phase of saturated sand. The observed phase changes were dependent on the initial pore water pressure and duration of exposure to the X-ray; the behavior of individual gas bubbles was dependent on the bubble’s surrounding sand grains and pore throat sizes leading to changes in the degree of saturation.

A standard thermodynamic-based extension of the Modified Cam-Clay soil model and its applications

For mechanical behaviours of granular soils considered here (sands, silts and stiff clays), we propose a thermodynamic-based formulation which relies on the Modified Cam-Clay constitutive model. To this end, and in the framework of Generalized Standard Materials (GSM) framework, we introduce a free energy and a yield criterion (or equivalently a dissipation potential) which account for an isotropic nonlinear elastic behaviour and a volumetric hardening law. Based on available works with coupled hardening laws for von Mises plasticity, we propose for pressure-sensitive materials a new nonlinear deviatoric hardening preserving the well-known critical state existence.Taking advantage of the GSM framework, we establish an incremental variational formulation of the model whose solution obeys to a minimization principle. This has required an approximation of the incremental dissipation. The resulting equations are detailed for the use of an implicit resolution scheme with a standard Newton–Raphson algorithm. The constitutive model parameters are calibrated on a pool of experimental data on isotropic, shearing and triaxial tests on loose sand specimen. The investigations of the model responses allow to better predict the nonlinear regimes of soils specimen on monotonic and cyclic loading paths. Numerical finite element simulations finally underline the predictive capabilities of the model on structures.

Spatiotemporal variations of sand hydraulic conductivity by microbial application methods

The spatiotemporal distributions of microbes in soil by different methods could affect the efficacy of the microbes to reduce the soil hydraulic conductivity. In this study, the specimens of bio-mediated sands were prepared using three different methods, i.e. injecting, mixing, and pouring a given microbial solution onto compacted sand specimens. The hydraulic conductivity was measured by constant-head tests, while any soil microstructural changes due to addition of the microbes were observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) tests. The amount of dextran concentration produced by microbes in each type of specimen was quantified by a refractometer. Results show that dextran production increased exponentially after 5–7 d of microbial settling with the supply of culture medium. The injection and mixing methods resulted in a similar amount and uniform distribution of dextran in the specimens. The pouring method, however, produced a nonuniform distribution, with a higher concentration near the specimen surface. As the supply of culture medium discontinued, the dextran content near the surface produced by the pouring method decreased dramatically due to high competition for nutrients with foreign colonies. Average dextran concentration was negatively and correlated with hydraulic conductivity of bio-mediated soils exponentially, due to the clogging of large soil pores by dextran. The hydraulic conductivity of the injection and mixing cases did not change significantly when the supply of culture medium was absent.

Mechanical behavior of gap-graded soil subjected to internal erosion: comparison of suffusion and concentrated erosion

Internal erosion causes massive damage to the soil local and integral fabric with loss of fine particles. In order to further compare the mechanical consequence of different internal erosion scenarios, a series of dissolution tests were designed to simulate suffusion and concentrated erosion by using small amounts of salt particles. For both salt-free clean sand specimens and erodible salt-sand specimens, drained triaxial compression tests combined with bender element measurement were performed to evaluate the degradation of stiffness and strength after internal erosion. Experimental results showed that the shear wave velocity decreased during water saturation. The concentrated erosion resulted more reduction in the shear wave velocity compared to suffusion at same mass erosion fraction of 1%. In general, all the relevant mechanical parameters, e.g. shear wave velocity, peak shear strength and volumetric strain, showed more significant decreasing characteristics in case of concentrated erosion, which indicated that concentrated erosion at key local positions would lead to more critical damage to the soil fabric.

Density-Dependent Pore Water Pressure Evolution in a Simplified Cyclic Shear Test

When specimens of different sands are produced using the same preparation method and sheared under the same conditions (consolidation stress, loading, etc.), while simultaneously keeping the drainage closed, the resulting tendencies of these sands regarding the PWP build-up will be different. This research paper presents a simplified cyclic shear test, which is used to evaluate the accumulation of PWP in sands under defined specimen preparation procedure and testing conditions. In the proposed experiment, a comparison of different sands with this respect is easily achieved. The principle of this experimental method is based on the evolution of the PWP during cyclic shearing of a water-saturated sand sample. Undrained conditions during the experiment allow for the evolution of the PWP, which is quantified by the rate of the PWP build-up. The duration of a single cyclic shear test, including specimen preparation, is approximately 30 min. The evaluation of the rate of the PWP build-up for different densities resulted in an exponential dependence of the PWP build-up on the variation of the relative density. The results confirmed a higher generation of PWP in a fine sand compared to a coarse sand. A comparison with the results of undrained cyclic triaxial tests in the case of eight different sands demonstrated a good agreement between both experimental methods. The basis for the comparison was the density-dependent evolution of PWP in these methods. The presented method delivers a value (index) that quantifies the PWP build-up in sands under the defined testing conditions.

Exploring particle breakage in sand under triaxial shearing using combined X-ray tomography and particle tracking method

In this paper, a novel investigation of the particle breakage behaviour of sands is made using combined techniques of X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT) and sand particle tracking. First, an in situ μCT triaxial test on a miniature sand specimen is conducted to allow the visualisation of particle-scale morphology and movement. Then a two-step particle tracking method is developed and applied to track the sand particles that experience a zero or slight degree of particle breakage. Making use of the power of the particle tracking method, the individual intact particles within a sheared sand specimen containing a mixture of crushed and uncrushed particles were tracked for the first time. The results show that the degree of particle breakage in the consolidation stage is very low, and before the peak stress is reached, more than half of the particles were crushed for the first time; also significant particle breakage occurred at the centre of the specimen during the post-peak stage. The particle shape and gradation analyses reveal that larger grains with lower values of sphericity and convexity are prone to breakage, with the angularities of the crushed particles being closely related to their mother particles.