Sanction Mechanisms Research Articles

Sanction mechanism for excluding states from international organizations

Compliance with the universally recognised principles and norms of international law is of paramount importance in modern society. Countering current threats requires effective measuresto strengthenthe roleoflegalmechanisms in ensuring international order. It should be noted that international sanctions are key instruments used by international organisations to restore violated international law, strengthen justice and stability of relations. In modern international practice, there is a noticeable increase in cases of gross violations by states of the basic principles of international organisations, covering both political and economic aspects. This trend prompts a critical analysis of how to restore and prevent such events in the future. For Ukraine, the issue of forced expulsion is becoming increasingly relevant given the extremely destructive nature of russia’s violations of fundamental principles of international law, one of which is the non-use of force and the threat of its use. Forced expulsion becomes the last lever of influence for the implementation of the fundamental principles of international law and compliance with international legal obligations. The study analysed the charters of leading international organisations, such as the United Nations (hereinafter - UN), the Council of Europe (hereinafter - CoE), the International Monetary Fund (hereinafter - IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (hereinafter - IBRD), the European Union (hereinafter - EU), and the World Health Organization (hereinafter - WHO), which have made an unprecedented contribution to the development of international law. However, some of the above-mentioned institutions have shown a limited number of practical approaches to countering violations, which creates space for states to abuse their rights. This article highlights the critical need to develop and implement effective remedies to counter violations, such as exclusion. Such a sanction is a key instrument of influence, as it isolates the offending country from access to cooperation and communication with other countries and international institutions, which directly affects the development of the state’s external relations. Exclusion can help to eliminate violations of international law and maintain the integrity of international organisations in the face of modern challenges.

EU as a Trade Power: Adjusting Instruments of Foreign Economic Policy

The focus of this study is aimed at the foreign economic policy of the European Union and the areas of its implementation. The article is based on a comprehensive approach to the concept of EU foreign economic policy as a set of instruments combining trade and investment policies of the EU. The study evaluates the communitarization of the main directions of the EU’s foreign economic policy. As a result, it is concluded that the exclusive competence of the supranational bodies of the Union is partially extended to investment policy. Considering that the paradigm of realism is taken as the basis for the study, the subject of the article is to assess the role of the EU’s foreign economic policy in the realization of the Union’s foreign policy interests. The authors believe that the European Union as a “trade power”, seeks not only to achieve economic benefits, but also to ensure that its trading partners meet a number of regulatory and value requirements. Taking into account the transformation of the world order, the need for the European Union to strengthen its own political subjectivity and economic competitiveness is increasing. This leads to the expansion of “defensive” measures in trade policy (sanctions mechanism for non-compliance with the provisions on sustainable development in trade agreements) and investment policy (mechanism for controlling foreign direct investments). As a result, it strengthens the normative and value content of EU foreign economic policy on one hand and make it more protectionist on the other hand. The authors of the article conclude that by means of foreign economic policy, the European Union, as a “trading force”, seeks to create and maintain an international trade order based on rules that are beneficial to the EU.

Pemanfaatan Hukum Internasional dalam Penyelesaian Sengketa Laut China Selatan: Analisis dengan Pendekatan Doktrinal

The South China Sea is a strategic region of global significance, both economically and geopolitically. It serves as a major global trade route, with over 30% of global trade passing through it annually. Additionally, the South China Sea is rich in natural resources, including oil, gas, and abundant marine products. However, overlapping territorial claims among countries such as China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia have triggered prolonged geopolitical tensions. This study aims to analyze the role of international law, particularly UNCLOS 1982, as the primary framework for resolving these disputes. Using a doctrinal approach, the study examines primary legal documents, such as UNCLOS 1982, the 2016 Arbitration Award, and ASEAN agreements. Data shows an average of 15 annual conflicts in the South China Sea over the past decade, with a significant increase from 5 cases in 2014 to 25 cases in 2023. While UNCLOS 1982 provides a clear legal framework, non-compliance with arbitration rulings, such as China's refusal to adhere to the 2016 ruling, highlights weaknesses in enforcement mechanisms and sanctions. This study emphasizes that multilateral approaches based on international law, supported by regional mechanisms like ASEAN, have yet to achieve full effectiveness. The findings offer strategic recommendations, including reforming international sanction mechanisms and strengthening ASEAN frameworks to support conflict resolution and ensure sustainable stability in the region

External Corporate Governance and Corporate Misconduct: A Meta‐Analysis

ABSTRACTResearch Question/IssueExternal governance parties deter corporate misconduct through their monitoring. External monitoring increases the probability of corporate misconduct being detected and sanctioned. Current research on the relationship between external governance and corporate misconduct remains fragmented across these detection and sanction mechanisms of deterrence. This separation of mechanisms leaves us with an incomplete concept of external monitoring and obscures our understanding of what facilitates monitoring by investors, auditors, analysts, and the media.Research Findings/InsightsWe integrate the detection and sanction mechanisms of deterrence into a process model of external monitoring. Our meta‐analysis of 188 studies from 14 countries covering the period from 1970 to 2019 identifies proximity, credibility, and attention as common underlying factors that facilitate monitoring by external governance parties. Proximity is of particular relevance in deterring corporate misconduct. Ethical relativism weakens external governance parties' role in deterring corporate misconduct.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsParties outside firm boundaries affect public perception of firms, thereby possessing a unique influence on corporate governance. We integrate this form of influence into the concept of external monitoring. Our meta‐analytic synthesis suggests a fundamental role for external governance in preventing corporate misconduct and informs on the relevance of societal values for corporate governance and corporate misconduct.

Санкции – странный феномен

The history of international economic sanctions is simultaneously old and relatively young. The first sanctions recorded in written history were applied in ancient times, but the newly introduced punitive economic measures received legal status only after the First World War. At first, sanctions were not given much political significance and there were not many of them. The situation changed radically after the Second World War and especially after the collapse of the USSR. The rapid increase in sanction activity over the past two decades is a manifestation of the desire of the United States and its satellites to protect their position as a world hegemon. The punitive economic apparatus, the most powerful in the United States, is set up for sanction activity and generates restrictions and prohibitions as the main products of its activity. To paraphrase the philosopher Rene Descartes, the western sanctions government officer use to say: “I authorize, therefore I exist”. International economic sanctions are losing their original function as a means of preventing military conflicts and are turning into an economic weapon. But, paradoxically, attempts to interpret them as an instrument of economic policy are not valid, if only due to the fact that working with the categories of “efficiency”, widely used in economic science, is impossible in the case of sanctions. Instead of “efficiency”, the term “effectiveness” should be used, but measuring the latter, unlike “efficiency”, is impossible; therefore, the phenomenon of sanctions, as such, largely goes beyond the scope of economic science. The nature of modern sanctions is perverse. Their use not only entails economic degradation and destruction of the institutional structure of society in the target countries, but also causes damage to the sending countries. Most modern sanctions are illegitimate and have no moral justification. Sanctions and their systematic application are nothing more than a geopolitical weapon used to undermine the sovereignty of independent states. This article shows the historical evolution of the sanctions mechanism, its degeneration and transformation into a stable institutional entity.

Legal Reform of Criminal Responsibility in Imposing Poverty Sanctions for Perpetrators of Corruption to Restore State Losses

The eradication of corruption is a top priority in efforts to build good governance and transparency in Indonesia. This study explores the implementation of poverty sanctions for corruption offenders as an effective strategy to recover state losses and deter future corruption. It examines the need for legal reform in criminal accountability to ensure fair restitution of state losses and a stronger deterrent effect. By analyzing the current Corruption Law and proposed revisions, the study highlights the potential for strengthening poverty sanction mechanisms in line with principles of justice and human rights. Findings suggest that measures such as asset freezing, prohibition from holding public office, and stringent financial monitoring can significantly contribute to combating corruption. Legal reform is crucial in providing a solid foundation for these efforts, with consistent and transparent implementation of revised regulations being key to success.

A Study on the Protection of Litigation Rights in Electronic Service of Process

Electronic service of process is a crucial foundation of digital rule of law. However, its development is significantly hindered by recipients’ limited understanding, weak litigation capabilities, and malicious abuse of procedural rights. This paper analyzes issues such as the weakened protection of recipients’ right to be informed, the difficulty of enforcing their right to defense, and the lack of effective channels for exercising their right to remedy. To address these challenges, the paper proposes enhancing the operability of electronic service, strengthening the notification and explanation of rights to recipients, and allowing unilateral application of electronic service to incentivize its selection. It also suggests tailoring electronic service according to litigation procedures, case types, and parties involved, to ensure recipients’ reasonable exercise of procedural rights. Additionally, the paper advocates for granting recipients the right to challenge electronic service and establishing clear accountability and sanctions mechanisms to improve access to remedies. From the perspective of litigation rights protection, this study explores the balance between procedural justice and litigation efficiency, aiming to achieve digital justice in electronic service procedures.

Sanksi Publisitas Dalam Bentuk Pidana Pengumuman Putusan Pengadilan Terhadap Korporasi Pelaku Perdagangan Orang

Indonesia ratified the Law Number 21 of 2007 on the Eradication of Criminal Acts of Trafficking in Persons (UUPTPPO) which contains comprehensive regulations that expand the scope of perpetrators by including corporations. Fine penalty only has a financial impact and is considered as business loss for corporations. In addition, the additional penalties provided for by the law do not have much impact on corporations as they can still operate without a license. The trend of corporations to seek maximum profit, coupled with the lack of knowledge of victims about the modes of human trafficking crimes, makes it necessary to impose additional penalties such as the announcement of the court's decision. This study aims to explain the urgency of the announcement of the court's decision as an additional penalty and to provide ideas for its implementation scheme. The research results show that the announcement of the court's decision is a formal publicity sanction that has never been applied in Indonesia. As input to fill the legal vacuum, limited formal publicity sanction mechanisms can be used as a reference for implementation. Through such a mechanism, the announcement of the court's decision is aimed at lowering the reputation and inducing government intervention.

Unilateral Sanctions under International Law and Effectiveness of Blocking

INTRODUCTION. This article discusses modern international legal concept of unilateral sanctions. The authors contribute to the emerging discussion on the qualifying of unilateral sanctions under international law.MATERIALS AND METHODS. In this study we took into account the works of both Russian and foreign scholars in the field of international economic law, as well as analyzed documents and materials of international organizations (United Nations (UN), World Trade Organization (WTO) and others) in order to assess the compatibility of unilateral sanctions with international law. General scientific methods of cognition (analysis, synthesis, induction, and deduction), special legal methods (formal-legal, technical-legal, method of legal analogy) and comparative legal method were used in the presented research.RESEARCH RESULTS. Presented analysis has shown that widely used term “unilateral sanctions” leads to abusive and inappropriate use of international legal term. Analysis of compatibility of unilateral sanctions with other types of coercive measures such as countermeasures, UN Security Council sanctions, retortions, reprisals have shown that unilateral sanctions do not fall under the meaning of all mentioned measures. In addition, unilateral sanctions should not be justified under the WTO security exceptions. The use of extraterritorial unilateral sanctions contradicts one of the fundamental principles of international law – principle of non-interference in internal affairs. Existing blocking unilateral sanctions mechanisms are not efficient enough to compensate negative effect posed by unilateral sanctions.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Authors concluded that unilateral sanctions in most of the cases do not satisfy cumulative criteria of legitimate countermeasure. Unilateral sanctions are not equivalent to the United Nation Security Council sanctions, as there are no “checks and balances” in the decision-making process in the form of determining the degree of threat to peace and security and taking into account humanitarian exceptions. Although there is some correlation between unilateral sanctions and retortions or reprisals, retortions and reprisals posses criteria of legality and proportionality, while, unilateral sanctions are introduced at the state’s discretion without any standard. Furthermore, the authors argue that to avoid abusive use of the WTO security exceptions WTO panels have to rely on the well-balanced approach used by the Panel in Russia – Transit case. This approach shows that the context of security exception should be understood as encompassing only military and closely related to military issues and does not cover political, economic, cultural or any other interests and relations. Existing blocking mechanisms of unilateral sanctions require separate qualification under international law including compatibility with the legitimate countermeasures.

Beyond a facility: A cross-sectional survey on WASH service levels and informal social accountability in childcare centres in Nairobi's informal settlements

Abstract Access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services is crucial for a healthy start in life. Social accountability has a potential for enhancing WASH services in childcare centres. However, there are inadequate studies to understand how informal social accountability mechanisms contributes to WASH service provision. To address this gap, we conducted a cross-sectional survey in Korogocho and Viwandani informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya, to explore the relationship between different levels of WASH services (ranging from basic to limited or nonexistent) and indicators of informal social accountability, including rewards, sanctions, voice, and responsiveness. We employed multinomial regression analysis, utilizing a robust error variance estimator to account for potential biases. Our findings revealed disparities in WASH service provision between the two studied areas, with childcare centres in Korogocho exhibiting higher access to basic WASH services compared to those in Viwandani. Our analysis also highlighted a significant association between informal social accountability mechanisms and the provision of WASH services. Notably, the sanction mechanism exhibited a correlation with all WASH services, suggesting its pivotal role in shaping service delivery outcomes. In light of these findings, it is imperative to prioritize efforts aimed at reinforcing social accountability mechanisms in WASH service delivery frameworks.

Management of sanction mechanisms introduced by G7 countries on Russian precious metals flow in the context of the war in Ukraine – July – December 2022

Artykuł jest kontynuacją Zarządzanie mechanizmami sankcji wprowadzonymi przez kraje G7 na przepływ rosyjskich metali szlachetnych w kontekście wojny na Ukrainie – luty– czerwiec 2022 roku.
 Analiza rozpoczyna się od omówienia wpływu siódmego pakietu sankcji, blokującego możliwość importu rosyjskiego złota i nakładającego cła importowe na inne metale szlachetne i przemysłowe.
 Kolejny punkt dotyczy London Metal Exchange, która nie jest w stanie całkowicie zrezygnować z dostaw rosyjskich metali. Autor koncentruje się w tym rozdziale na metalach przemysłowych, ponieważ lepiej ilustrują one problematyczne kwestie występujące na LME, jednak w pełni odnoszące się do palladu i platyny.
 Kolejne rozdziały skupiają się na Rosji. Artykuł koncentruje się na ewolucji rezerw złota w Centralnym Banku Rosji, kondycji i kłopotach lokalnego sektora wydobywczego oraz sposobach na wykorzystanie złota i produktów „pochodnych” do obejścia blokad SWIFT.
 W konkluzji stwierdzono, że sankcje nałożone na rosyjskie metale szlachetne są w dużej mierze obchodzone przez Rosję.

Trust and the Procedural Requirements of Article 7(2) TEU: When More than One Bad Apple Spoils the Barrel

AbstractThis article discusses a currently hypothetical, but increasingly more likely, situation where Article 7(2) TEU is activated against more than one backsliding Member State at the same time. To prevent the offending Member States from teaming up to block the sanction mechanism, an extension of the exclusion from voting in Article 354 TFEU beyond “the Member State in question” is likely to be considered by the CJEU. However, such a use of this mechanism is contrary to the effet utile of Article 7 TEU, if interpreted in the context of trust. This interdisciplinary study uses insights from trust theory to demonstrate that the outcome will inevitably be further distrust and fragmentation between the EU and its Member States. This is why Article 7(2) TEU is not meant to be (and ought not to be) used against more than one Member State at the same time in this manner. This impression is reinforced considering that the existing legal solutions for implementing the extension of the exclusion from voting under Article 354 TFEU violate general principles of EU law and will therefore cause further distrust and fragmentation.

Effect of Corruption on Human Capital in Franc Zone Countries: An Opportunity Cost Analysis

The objective of this paper is to analyze the impact of corruption on human capital in African Franc zone countries. Assuming that the representative agent is rational, we develop a theoretical model in which effort, the real component of the human capital accumulation process, encompasses learning time, the learner’s personal resources, and the educational public good. The learner makes a trade-off between effort and corruption according to the opportunity cost of each option. Thus, in an environment where corruption (large and small) is endemic and where there are very few sanction mechanisms, the learner considers it rational to bribe at the expense of effort. Empirical analysis shows that a drop in the corruption perception index (reflecting an increase in corruption) of one-point leads to a drop in the human capital index of 0.175 percentage points. On the other hand, the impact is positive for public spending on education, official development assistance, real GDP per capita, and the management ratio. These variables reduce the opportunity cost of the effort. A number of recommendations are put forward with a view to reducing the cost of effort and increasing the cost of corruption.

Acts restricting fair competition: issues of criminalization and differentiation of criminal liability

The subject of the study is certain areas of criminal law policy in the field of protection of fair competition, namely the current state of criminalization of acts restricting fair competition, the signs of which directly or indirectly correspond to violations of the Federal Law "On Protection of Competition", disadvantages of criminalization of such acts, as well as violations of the rules of legislative technique in their design, differentiation of criminal liability for committing such crimes, law enforcement in the field of criminal law counteraction to the restriction of fair competition. The purpose of the work is to identify the problems of criminalization of acts restricting fair competition in their relation to the Federal Law "On Protection of Competition", the shortcomings of differentiation of criminal liability for their commission in the light of official recognition of the need to counter anticompetitive violations as a threat to economic security, and ways to eliminate them. The research methodology is based on general scientific and private scientific methods of cognition - system analysis, logical, comparative, formal dogmatic, legal forecasting, classification method. The novelty lies in the fact that the author: 1) a study of the provisions of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation for the content of crimes in it, the signs of which are directly or indirectly related to violations of the prohibitions of the Federal Law "On Protection of Competition", an analysis of this ratio, as well as their reflection in law enforcement; 2) proposals on criminalization of collusion at auctions, depending on the subject of collusion; 3) given analysis of violations of legislative technique in the description of crimes, the signs of which may be associated with violation of the prohibitions of the Federal Law "On Protection of Competition"; 4) it is concluded that new qualifying or especially qualifying signs are included as means of differentiating criminal liability for encroachments on fair competition, the shortcomings of existing sanctions are studied and ways to eliminate them are proposed. The conclusions are that in order to solve the tasks of countering anti-competitive acts as a threat to economic security, it is necessary to reconsider the approach to criminalizing acts that restrict competition, in particular, by clarifying the signs of their objective side, expanding the grounds for criminal liability for anti-competitive agreements, differentiating responsibility for their commission by clarifying qualifying and especially qualifying signs, improving the sanctions mechanism.

Institutional change in community-based management for organic labeling: a case study from a Participatory Guarantee System in France

This paper investigates how the process of institutional change shapes community-based organizations, by considering both formal and informal governance rules over several different periods. For this purpose, we examine how the community-based management of organic farming has changed in the past five decades. The French association, Nature & Progrès (N&P), adopted a “Participatory Guarantee System” (PGS) to monitor compliance with their organic standard, created in 1972. Yet, following the European regulation “Organic Agriculture” enforced in 1995, N&P was excluded from the public policy framework for organic farming, which was reserved for operators that were certified by a third party. Ostrom and Basurto’s (Journal of Institutional Economics, 7(3), 3, 2011) analytical tool is useful to describe the changes in collective rules. Drawing on original data collected from N&P, we examine how institutional changes in the European legislation have affected the governance of a community-based certification scheme. We focus on prescriptions that rely on internal or external sanction mechanisms and discuss the implications for enforcement. Our results show that the N&P structure has become an institutionalized PGS. N&P members have managed to build a complex governance system to certify organic products despite the European restriction on access to the organic label. However, the conformity system used by local groups is largely based on unwritten norms, which can cause confusion and conflicts between users, especially since PGS communities are “evolving communities.”

Conceptualizing digital sanctions as a new type of economic sanctions in the digital era: Digital-related sanctions measures against Russia and their consequences

In the era of digital transformation, the structure and application of economic sanctions have evolved, expanding from traditional trade embargoes to sophisticated digital and financial sanctions. The recent conflict in Ukraine triggered a spectrum of responses from the Western powers, targeting Russia’s digital sectors. The sanctions include restrictions on quantum computing, IT services, manufacturing, aerospace technology, and other measures that may impede the country’s digital transformation. This study aims to understand if these emerging digital-technology related measures can be perceived as a novel form of economic sanctions and to explore the potential economic implications for Russia. Two primary research questions are addressed in this paper: First, we ask whether sanctions targeting digital technology and development can be seen as an advanced form of economic sanctions, and what would be the subsequent economic losses incurred by Russia. We also explore possible Russian responds or adapt to these economic pressures. As digital transformation continues to revolutionise economies globally, this research posits that digital-technology sanctions hold substantial economic ramifications for targeted countries. By analysing the features and outcomes of the recent sanctions against Russia, the study provides insights into the evolving landscape of sanctions mechanisms and diplomacy in the digital age.

The Problem of State Sovereignty in the Context of Deglobalization

The relevance of the research topic is due to the inconsistency of globalist and deglobalist trends in the modern world and their influence on the sovereignty of state actors.The purpose of the study is to analyze the impact of deglobalization on state sovereignty.Objectives of the study: the study of strengthening the sovereignty of the state at the economic, political and cultural levels.Methodology. In the course of writing the article, the method of system analysis was used to study the problems of sovereign powers of state actors. General scientific research methods were applied in the work. Statistical and regulatory sources were used for the validity of the study.Results. The problems of the phenomenon of state sovereignty at the level of deglobalist tendencies are revealed; the zones in which state sovereignty is being strengthened are identified (trade wars; import substitution policy; isolationist approach; legislative decisions, solving global problems, participation in international organizations).Conclusion. The process of strengthening State sovereignty in the context of the deglobalization of the international community is objective. The expansion of the sovereign powers of the state is associated with an increase in the number of global problems. Challenges and threats of the international community force countries to make collective decisions that limit the State's own national interests. Therefore, state actors are forced to follow the path of isolationism and rejection of communitarian measures in developing solutions to mitigate global risks. At the political level, sovereignty is strengthened at the level of participation in multilateral formats and solving global problems. The strengthening of sovereignty in the economic sphere is determined by the state of the world economy. The presence of a global economic crisis pushes countries to apply the policy of trade wars, protectionism, sanctions mechanism and import substitution. The problem of expanding sovereign powers at the level of the cultural sphere is associated with uncontrolled migration flows. In this case, there is an increase in conflicts along the lines of national identity.

Could Artificial Intelligence be the Subject of Criminal Law?

The use of artificial intelligence can increase productivity and efficiency in various sectors of life. However, it can also potentially cause legal problems especially criminal law if they result in losses. The subject of law in determining who should be responsible is a separate issue. This research examines whether technology using artificial intelligence can be used as the subject of criminal law so that criminal responsibility can be held. This research is normative juridical research with a statutory, conceptual approach and cases related to artificial intelligence and criminal law issues. The study shows that the ability to analyze and make decisions possesed by artificial intelligence can be indicated as "malicious intent". Yet, the concept of punishment for the artificial intelligence system requires a unique formula, as the personality of artificial intelligence cannot be equated with the personality of a human or legal entity. The granting of legal status through a criminal sanction mechanism in the form of machine deactivation, reprogramming, and the severity of destroying machines is expected to provide future solutions to minimize the risk of criminal acts by artificial intelligence.

CERN's sanctions regime against Russian science: nature, features and consequences

The subject of the article is the process of forming the CERN sanctions regime regarding Russia's participation in global scientific megaprojects in the field of theoretical physics. The purpose of the article is to reveal the content and organizational mechanism of CERN sanctions aimed at ending institutional cooperation with Russia. The objectives of the study include determining the algorithm of the long-term bilateral strategic partnership between Russia and CERN; revealing the grounds and logic of CERN's unilateral termination of promising cooperation with Russia, as well as predicting the negative consequences of sanctions. The authors pay special attention to testing the research hypothesis that CERN's anti–Russian sanctions policy is based on a combination of, on the one hand, politicized principles, and, on the other, extreme prudence, which resulted in the "stretching" of the measures taken over time and their focus on taking into account the current geopolitical situation. This indicates the incompleteness of the transition from the logic of scientific diplomacy to the rigid logic of sanctions, which makes it possible to predict the preservation of some elements of scientific diplomacy in relations between CERN and Russia. The methodological base of the research includes traditional methods and approaches (analysis and synthesis, abstraction and generalization; modeling; forecasting; the general scientific principle of dialectical development; a systematic approach), as well as new methods (meta-analysis, discursive analysis, stochastic factor analysis). It is concluded that CERN's sanctions policy, based on an appeal to value motivations, is characterized by flexible consideration of the current geopolitical situation and the gradual nature of the restrictive measures taken. The research hypothesis about the preservation of a certain potential of scientific diplomacy in relations between CERN and Russia has been confirmed in the work. This is reflected in the continuation of cooperation and fulfillment of obligations under existing bilateral agreements. It is proved that, by their nature, CERN sanctions belong to an independent category of sanctions against Russian science, which are imposed by international structures operating in the field of megascience. The novelty of the research lies in the actualization of the need to develop a special direction of Russian scientific and technical policy aimed at mitigating the consequences of sanctions complications in relations with international organizational structures in the field of megascience.

ECONOMISTS REVEAL INNER WORKINGS OF WESTERN SANCTIONS MECHANISMS

ECONOMISTS REVEAL INNER WORKINGS OF WESTERN SANCTIONS MECHANISMS