Sampling Period Research Articles

Lower Microscopy Sensitivity with Decreasing Malaria Prevalence in the Urban Amazon Region, Brazil, 2018-2021.

Malaria is increasingly diagnosed in urban centers across the Amazon Basin. In this study, we combined repeated prevalence surveys over a 4-year period of a household-based random sample of 2,774 persons with parasite genotyping to investigate the epidemiology of malaria in Mâncio Lima, the main urban transmission hotspot in Amazonian Brazil. We found that most malarial infections were asymptomatic and undetected by point-of-care microscopy. Our findings indicate that as malaria transmission decreases, the detection threshold of microscopy rises, resulting in more missed infections despite similar parasite densities estimated by molecular methods. We identified genetically highly diverse populations of Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in the region; occasional shared lineages between urban and rural residents suggest cross-boundary propagation. The prevalence of low-density and asymptomatic infections poses a significant challenge for routine surveillance and the effectiveness of malaria control and elimination strategies in urbanized areas with readily accessible laboratory facilities.

Real-time control of a soft manipulator based on reduced order extended position-based dynamics

Soft robots are high-dimensional nonlinear systems coupled with both geometric and material nonlinearity. Control of such a system is complex and time-consuming. In this study, a real-time trajectory tracking control framework is established based on the reduced order extended position-based dynamics. In contrast to the common nonlinear model order reduction methods that require to collect a large number of data to create the motion subspace, this article's motion subspace is constructed based on the model configuration and material properties. The linear modes of the model and the related modal derivatives provide the reduced order matrix, which streamlines and increases the efficiency of model construction. Then, coupled with the instantaneous optimal control, a real-time reduced order model-based control framework of soft robots can be constructed. Experiments on trajectory tracking of a soft manipulator are conducted to verify the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed controller. The average error of all experiments is within 1 cm; and the single-step calculation time of the controller is about 0.057 s, which is less than the sampling period 0.1 s.

Hypoxia-acclimation adjusts skeletal muscle anaerobic metabolism and burst swim performance in a marine fish

Red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, are a marine teleost native to the Gulf of Mexico that routinely experiences periods of low oxygen (hypoxia). Recent work has demonstrated this species has the capacity to improve aerobic performance in hypoxia through respiratory acclimation. However, it remains unknown how hypoxia acclimation impacts anaerobic metabolism in red drum, and the consequences of exhaustive exercise and recovery. Juvenile fish were acclimated to normoxia (n = 15, DO 90.4 ± 6.42 %) or hypoxia (n = 15, DO 33.6 ± 7.2 %) for 8 days then sampled at three time points: at rest, after exercise, and after a 3 h recovery period. The resting time point was used to characterize the acclimated phenotype, while the remaining time points demonstrate how this phenotype responds to exhaustive exercise. Whole blood, red muscle, white muscle, and heart tissues were sampled for metabolites and enzyme activity. The resting phenotype was characterized by lower pHe and changes to skeletal muscle ATP. Exhaustive exercise increased muscle lactate, and decreased phosphocreatine and ATP with no effect of acclimation. Interestingly, hypoxia-acclimated fish had higher pHe and pHi than control in all exercise time points. Red muscle ATP was lower in hypoxia-acclimated fish versus control at each sample period. Moreover, acclimated fish increased lactate dehydrogenase activity in the red muscle. Hypoxia acclimation increased white muscle ATP and hexokinase activity, a glycolytic enzyme. In a gait-transition swim test, hypoxia-acclimated fish recruited anaerobic-powered burst swimming at lower speeds in normoxia compared to control fish. These data suggest that acclimation increases reliance on anaerobic metabolism, and does not benefit recovery from exhaustive exercise.

Identification of the oxidation and hydrolysis products content influence on the rapeseed oil oxidation induction period

The object of the study is the dependence of the induction period of rapeseed oil on the content of oxidation and hydrolysis products. A feature of the work is determining the approximation dependence of the induction period of accelerated oxidation of refined rapeseed oil on the content of primary oxidation products and free fatty acids. This is useful when predicting the shelf life of refined rapeseed oil. It was determined that both factors negatively affect the oxidation stability of refined rapeseed oil. An increase in the peroxide value decreases the induction period of model oil samples by 32.8512 units for each additional mmol ½ O/kg. In turn, increasing the acid value of oil samples reduces the induction period by 19.8424 units for each additional mg KOH/g. Different oxidation dynamics of model samples of refined rapeseed oil with tocopherol were revealed, depending on the concentration of primary oxidation and hydrolysis products. The obtained data are explained by the fact that the primary lipid oxidation products are unstable and quickly decompose to form free radicals. These radicals initiate further lipid oxidation, resulting in reduced oil quality. In addition, free fatty acids are more reactive than triglycerides and are more easily oxidized. A feature of the obtained results is the possibility of modeling processes that affect the oxidation stability of refined rapeseed oil. From a practical point of view, the research results allow initiating measures to maintain the safety of oil-containing food products based on refined rapeseed oil. An applied aspect of using the scientific results is the possibility of rationalizing the storage conditions of refined rapeseed oil to maximize its shelf life and increase competitiveness

Lessons learned during a 12-year monitoring project with the endangered Magdalena River turtle (Podocnemis lewyana): hunting pressure, habitat degradation, and methodological considerations

Turtle species in the Family Podocnemididae, including the Colombian endemic and critically endangered Magdalena River Turtle Podocnemis lewyana, characteristically present low recapture rates that preclude estimation of population parameters using maximum likelihood modeling. In our 12-year monitoring project with this species, we evaluated changes in relative abundances, proportions of sex/size classes, and individual body sizes and body conditions in a population in four channels in the middle Magdalena River drainage. We also inspected for associations between trends in changes in these variables and differences in hunting pressure and habitat degradation. To inspect for temporal and spatial demographic dynamics, we estimated variation in relative abundances using the Catch Per Unit Effort index, the total number of turtles captured over an entire 5-day sampling period using ten baited funnel traps. Relative abundances and the proportions of sex/size classes were different between sites and years. We found a significant decline in the proportion of females and juveniles over time, along with evidence that the females still present were smaller in body size. Our results support the hypothesis that hunting eliminates adult females from these sites, perhaps also translating into a reduction in recruitment. The lack of evidence of generalized declines in body condition of all size classes suggests that habitat degradation might contribute less to the population declines in this region. Our results also illustrate that even when recapture rates are low, monitoring turtles via standardized trapping may yield insights into the population’s conservation status that other relative abundance indices cannot.

Sustained Spread of HIV-1 CRF55_01B in Its Place of Initial Origin: Dynamics and Hotspots.

Shenzhen, a city with a substantial mobile population, was identified as the first discovered region of HIV-1 CRF55_01B and epicenter of its severe epidemic. During the implementation of venue-based behavioral interventions and the "treat-all" policy, discerning the spread patterns and transmission hotspots of CRF55_01B is imperative. In this study, 1,450 partial pol sequences, with demographic information, were collected from all newly diagnosed CRF55_01B infections in Shenzhen from 2008 to 2020. Molecular networks were constructed using the maximum likelihood and time-resolve phylogenies. Transmission rates, effective reproduction numbers (Re) of clusters and viral dispersal were evaluated using Bayesian inference. In total, 526 sequences formed 114 clusters, including seven large clusters. The status and size of clusters were strongly correlated with age, ethnicity, occupation and CD4+ T cell counts. The transmission rates of clusters were significantly higher than the national epidemic estimate. Four large clusters had Re exceeding 1 at the end of sampling period. Immigrants from Guangdong and Hunan, along with local residents, were identified as the transmission hubs, with heterosexual men being the main source and MSM being the main destination. The virus exhibited a high movement frequency from individuals aged 30-49 years toward diverse age groups. This study demonstrated the hidden CRF55_01B transmissions continued despite current combined interventions in Shenzhen, and special at-risk individuals susceptible to infection or transmission were identified, potentially serving as targets for more effective prevention and control of the local epidemic, thereby mitigating cross-regional spread nationwide due to population migration.

Surveillance Metrics and History of the COVID-19 Pandemic in Central Asia: Updated Epidemiological Assessment.

This study updates the COVID-19 pandemic surveillance in Central Asia we conducted during the first year of the pandemic by providing 2 additional years of data for the region. The historical context provided through additional data can inform regional preparedness and early responses to infectious outbreaks of either the SARS-CoV-2 virus or future pathogens in Central Asia. First, we aim to measure whether there was an expansion or contraction in the pandemic in Central Asia when the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the end of the public health emergency for the COVID-19 pandemic on May 5, 2023. Second, we use dynamic and genomic surveillance methods to describe the history of the pandemic in the region and situate the window of the WHO declaration within the broader history. Third, we aim to provide historical context for the course of the pandemic in Central Asia. Traditional surveillance metrics, including counts and rates of COVID-19 transmissions and deaths, and enhanced surveillance indicators, including speed, acceleration, jerk, and persistence, were used to measure shifts in the pandemic. To identify the appearance and duration of variants of concern, we used data on sequenced SARS-CoV-2 variants from the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID). We used Nextclade nomenclature to collect clade designations from sequences and Pangolin nomenclature for lineage designations of SARS-CoV-2. Finally, we conducted a 1-sided t test to determine whether regional speed was greater than an outbreak threshold of 10. We ran the test iteratively with 6 months of data across the sample period. Speed for the region had remained below the outbreak threshold for 7 months by the time of the WHO declaration. Acceleration and jerk were also low and stable. Although the 1- and 7-day persistence coefficients remained statistically significant, the coefficients were relatively small in magnitude (0.125 and 0.347, respectively). Furthermore, the shift parameters for either of the 2 most recent weeks around May 5, 2023, were both significant and negative, meaning the clustering effect of new COVID-19 cases became even smaller in the 2 weeks around the WHO declaration. From December 2021 onward, Omicron was the predominant variant of concern in sequenced viral samples. The rolling t test of speed equal to 10 became entirely insignificant for the first time in March 2023. Although COVID-19 continues to circulate in Central Asia, the rate of transmission remained well below the threshold of an outbreak for 7 months ahead of the WHO declaration. COVID-19 appeared to be endemic in the region and no longer reached the threshold of a pandemic. Both standard and enhanced surveillance metrics suggest the pandemic had ended by the time of the WHO declaration.

Asymmetric spillovers and resilience in physical and financial assets amid climate policy uncertainties: Evidence from China

Climate policy is essential for fostering sustainable development and addressing climate-related issues, while climate policy uncertainty (CPU) introduces complex challenges in providing a consistent framework for action. In this study, we delve into the spillover dynamics among China's domestic CPU, foreign CPU, physical assets, and financial assets across various market scenarios, through a quantile-based connectedness method and evidence from China. The findings reveal: (1) The spillover dynamics are asymmetric across quantiles and time, and the COVID-19 pandemic influences the total connectedness. (2) The complexity of spillover patterns in physical assets is likely contingent upon market conditions, policy sources, asset types, and industrial-chain positions, while the spillovers of financial assets are quantile-dependent and time-varying, with the agricultural equity market showing relative resilience to the pandemic. (3) There is no significant Granger causality in quantiles between domestic CPU and foreign CPU under the entire sample period, and the rankings regarding the spillovers from CPUs to assets vary across market conditions. Implications for policymakers, investors, and firms are provided.

Firms’ cost structure and stock return volatility

PurposeThis paper proposes a framework to identify a pattern in the relationship between firms’ cost structure (i.e. fixed versus variable) and their volatility in stock returns.Design/methodology/approachOur empirical analysis is based on a panel data regression where we use an extended sample period and a time-series regression-based elasticity measure of operating leverage.FindingsWe document significantly higher systematic risk among firms with large fixed costs, a conclusion which confirms theoretical predictions of earlier studies. In new findings, we document high firm-specific risk and high stock return volatility among firms with a fixed cost structure.Originality/valueThe paper fills a gap in the literature by examining the effect of cost structure using various operating leverage measures and other control measures for firm characteristics on idiosyncratic risk. Studies that seek to explain firms’ systematic risks are numerous; conversely, there are relatively fewer studies on the determinants of firms’ specific risks.

Chief Sustainability Officer (CSO) power and sustainability-based compensation for climate change disclosure and carbon performance: is it different for developed and developing nations?

Purpose Companies are increasingly appointing a Chief Sustainability Officer (CSO) to anchor the need to highlight climate change at the senior management level. This study aims to examine how CSO power and sustainability-based compensation influence climate reporting and carbon performance. Design/methodology/approach Using one of the largest data sets to date, consisting of 18,834 company years through the author’s observations, spanning an 11-year period (2011–2021) in 33 countries. This paper used quantitative methods – specifically, ordinal logistic regression estimation. This paper measures the level of climate change disclosure based on the carbon disclosure leadership methodology. Carbon performance is based on the intensity of carbon emissions (Scope 1, Scope 2), which is a quantitative and relatively more objective measure. Findings The results suggest that climate change disclosure continued to increase and the carbon emissions intensity of the companies in this study gradually decreased over the sample period. This paper finds that the presence of the CSO within the top management team has a positive and significant influence on the level of information on climate change of the companies in the sample. This finding confirms the idea that the managerial capacity of CSOs motivates the disclosure of climate change. The empirical results confirm that there are differences in the role that the CSO and sustainability-based compensation play in influencing the quality of climate information disclosure in developed and developing countries. Originality/value The recourse on a mixed theoretical framework, which highlights upper echelons theory, argues the understanding of the role of CSOs in explaining the relationship between climate change disclosure–carbon performance relationship. The novelty of the study lies in the approaches adopted to describe the quality of climate change disclosure. To control for endogeneity, this paper uses a difference-in-difference analysis by adding a firm to the Morgan Stanley Capital International index as an exogenous shock.

Vertical Flux of Microplastics in the Deep Subtropical Pacific Ocean: Moored Sediment-Trap Observations within the Kuroshio Extension Recirculation Gyre.

The Kuroshio Extension recirculation gyre in the western North Pacific is an accumulation site of plastic litter transported by the Kuroshio Current. A sediment trap was moored at a depth of 4900 m at Station KEO within the Kuroshio Extension recirculation gyre, and the vertical flux of microplastics in sinking particles of size <1 mm was observed. Forty-one sediment-trap samples collected from July 1, 2014, to October 2, 2016, were analyzed with a micro-Fourier transform infrared spectrometer and microplastics were detected in all samples. Seventeen polymer types were identified, and 90% of the microplastics were less than 100 μm in size. Microplastic sinking was driven by the action of the biological pump, which was in turn driven by seasonal variations in solar radiation and increased surface primary production typical of the spring season. Microplastic mass flux varied from 4.5 × 10-3 to 0.38 mg m-2 day-1 during the sampling period, with a mean and standard deviation of 0.054 ± 0.075 mg m-2 day-1. Extrapolating the annual microplastic mass flux at Station KEO to the entire Kuroshio Extension recirculation gyre, it is estimated that 0.028 million metric tons of microplastics are transported annually to 4900 m depth in this area.

How does carbon emissions trading scheme affect the investment efficiency of companies? Evidence from China

Carbon emissions trading scheme (ETS) will change the internal and external operating environment of related companies, increase new carbon reduction costs, and may affect their investment behavior and decision-making. This study constructs the policy effect evaluation model to evaluate the net effect of China's ETS pilot policy on the investment efficiency of related companies in high-carbon industries. This study indicates that: first, China's ETS pilot policy has reduced the inefficient investment of related companies by 11.40% during the sample period. Second, innovation ability plays an enhanced moderating effect in the inhibitory effect of China's ETS pilot policy on the inefficient investment of related companies in the short term, but the effect is weakened in the long-term. Third, the policy effect is relatively obvious for non-state-owned companies and companies with more institutional shareholdings. This research has important reference value for the continuous improvement of China's national carbon market, and the steady transformation from simple investment-driven to investment-efficiency-driven economic development in China.

Momentum and reversal strategies with low uncertainty

We propose augmented momentum and reversal trading strategies that incorporate considerations of market entry timing. Market entry timing is determined by two criteria: (1) low uncertainty of the model used to forecast trading return, and (2) a positive forecasted return. Utilizing daily data from the Chinese stock market, we demonstrate that while canonical momentum and reversal trading strategies typically yield negative returns and skewness, our augmented strategies consistently exhibit positive returns and skewness. Additionally, we show that implementation of the two criteria does not significantly diminish trading opportunities, with identified market entry days evenly distributed throughout the sample period.

The method of Pb-212 measurements in air with the application of the LSC technique

This paper describes a method enabling the measurement of the potential alpha energy concentration (PAEC) of thoron decay products based on the determined concentration of lead 212Pb (T1/2 = 10.64 h) in the air [Lever et al., 2003]. A liquid scintillation spectrometer was used to determine the concentration of the 212Pb isotope, and the sample was taken by pumping air through a filter where thoron decay products were stored. This method can be classified as integrating because the sample takes several hours, and the measurement results in one value for the entire sampling period. Measurements were carried out in laboratory conditions, in a climatic chamber where a constant supply of thoron was maintained, and in environmental conditions, in the basement of the family house and outdoors. Sampling took from 12 to 48 h. This article presents the preliminary results of the study. The obtained results were in the range of 170–195 Bq/m3 in the case of laboratory measurements and from 0.04 to 0.79 Bq/m3 in the case of environmental measurements. Based on the obtained results, the potential alpha energy concentration (PAEC) was calculated. The application of the low-level LS spectrometer allows for the achievement of a lower limit of detection (LLD) at level 0.04–0.05 Bq/m3, while the use of the portable LS spectrometer allows for the measurement of deficient 212Pb concentrations in the range of 0.4–0.5 Bq/m3. The obtained results confirm that the method is suitable for determining the concentration of 212Pb and, consequently, assessing exposure to thoron progeny.

DYNAMIC VOLATILITY SPILLOVERS BETWEEN CURRENCIES OF ASEAN MEMBER COUNTRIES AND CHINA: EVIDENCE FROM TVP-VAR APPROACH

Driven by the importance of analyzing interregional volatility spillover effects, this study investigates dynamic volatility spillovers between the currencies of China– ASEAN Free Trade Area (FTA) member countries by applying the time-varying parameter vector autoregressive (TVP-VAR) connectedness approach to a sample spanning January 1, 2006, to October 31, 2022. The results show that (1) dynamic volatility connectedness varies over time and reaches peaks due to economic events, such as the 2008 global financial crisis (GFC) and the COVID-19 pandemic; (2) the Chinese yuan (CNY) market assumes more of a net receiving role for volatility spillovers after the 811 exchange rate reform, while the Singapore dollar (SGD) market assumes more of a net transmitting role for volatility spillovers in the whole sample period and (3) negative spillovers are dominant during the study period, except during the European debt crisis. Our findings can help China and ASEAN establish an exchange rate coordination mechanism to prevent the cross-country transmission of exchange rate risk.

Assessing the impact of green patents on pollution reduction: A micro-level study of Chinese industrial firms

As global warming and environmental degradation escalate, policymakers worldwide increasingly advocate for the development of green patents. However, there is ongoing debate regarding the effectiveness of green patents in actual pollution reduction. Some studies suggest that firms may engage in green patenting activities to align with government and market expectations rather than achieving substantive breakthroughs in pollution reduction. In light of this, it is crucial to examine the impact of green patents on pollution reduction. This study employs a PSM-DID model to analyze the impact of green patents on pollution emission intensity using plant-level data from Chinese industrial firms. The results demonstrate that with an average increase of 1% in the number of green patents, the industrial waste gas emission intensity and industrial wastewater discharge intensity decreased by 4.74% and 8.68%, respectively. Furthermore, pollution treatment facilities were found to be more effective than green patents during the sample period. On average, the contribution of waste gas treatment facilities and wastewater treatment facilities in pollution reduction is 3.33% and 9.79% higher than that of green patents. These findings suggest that firms should adopt a balanced approach when making decisions on pollution reduction. Further analysis shows that the pollution reduction effect of green patents is partly at the expense of the total factor productivity of firms. This trade-off highlights the need for policy interventions to support firms in integrating green technologies without compromising productivity. This study underscores the emphasizes of transitioning from end-of-pipe pollution control to green production processes to achieve sustainable development in China.

Effect of the Addition of an Ultraviolet B Light Bulb for 6 Months to the Enclosure of Client-Owned Cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) on Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Concentrations

BackgroundThe objective of this study was to determine the effects of ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation on the serum concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] in pet cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) living in their home environments. MethodsThirty client-owned cockatiels were allocated to an intervention group, consisting of exposure to a commercial coil fluorescent bulb, or a control group, with no exposure to supplemental lighting. Blood samples were collected at baseline (Day 0) and 6 months after simple randomization for measurement of 25(OH)D (Day 180). A linear mixed model was used to determine if serum 25(OH)D concentrations were influenced by time, group, age, or sex. ResultsAt baseline, median 25(OH)D concentration for the whole study population was 13nmol/L (range, 0.0-15.0nmol/L). At the end of the study, median 25(OH)D concentration for the whole study population was 6.5 nmol/L (0.0-15.0nmol/L), for the UVB group was 3 nmol/L (0.0-8.0nmol/L) and for the control group was 7.5nmol/L (6.0-11.0nmol/L). There was a statistically significant 50% reduction in 25(OH)D concentrations from the baseline to the final sampling period for the overall population, but no differences by group, age, or sex. Conclusion and clinical relevanceThe addition of a UVB bulb for 6 months to the enclosures of cockatiels did not increase their serum 25(OH)D concentrations. There was an unexplained decrease in both groups when comparing Day 0 to the Day 180 sampling period. The 50% attenuation in the UVB lighting group, although not statistically significant, may be clinically relevant and deserves further investigation.

One sampler to see it all: The use of APIStrips for beehive characterization and pesticide residue evaluation based on mass spectrometry

Environmental monitoring is crucial for assessing the overall state of the ecosystems in terms of contaminant impact and chemical landscape. The use of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies considerably eases the sampling activities, as honey bees are exposed to a wide range of substances that are transported and accumulated within the beehives. In this work, combining low-resolution and high-resolution mass spectrometry, the APIStrip passive sampler has been employed to evaluate the presence of pesticide residues and the overall characterization of beehive environments. A total of 180 APIStrips have been deployed in 10 Danish apiaries, located in different landscapes, during a five-month sampling period. The targeted methodology for pesticide analysis was based on gas and liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, covering 430 pesticide residues. A total of 29 pesticide residues were identified (fluopyram and azoxystrobin being the most frequently detected), with remarkable differences in the pesticide load between apiaries. For its part, the use of non-targeted approaches through liquid chromatography coupled with an Orbitrap mass spectrometer allowed the detection of unknown compounds that were specific of certain environments. Natural products such as eupatilin and gnaphaliin, which are derived from plant sources, were present exclusively in one of the apiaries. Additionally, the detection of drimane sesquiterpenoids, including compounds potentially originating from the Aspergillus genus, suggests the capability of APIStrips to early detect fungal contamination within beehives. This dual approach of low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry maximizes the analytical potential of APIStrips as a tool capable of detecting a wide range of substances with implications for both agricultural practices and ecological health.

Time-varying exchange rate pass-through over 2005–2021 using dynamic model averaging

This study reexamines the time-varying structure of exchange rate pass-through (ERPT) by employing the dynamic model averaging (DMA) method. DMA is a novel empirical methodology that allows both parameters and predictors of the model to change over time, thereby addressing model uncertainty in determining time-varying ERPT degrees. We apply DMA to quarterly time series data spanning from 1996:1–2021:3 for each of the 39 advanced and emerging economies in the sample. The findings reveal a shift in short run ERPT dynamics prompted by the global crisis in 2008-09. While ERPT levels are initially low, they have been rising steadily since the onset of the pandemic across all advanced countries. Conversely, the ERPT levels are approximately twice as high in emerging economies, exhibiting a U-shaped pattern over the sample period.

Assessment of illicit drug use in Seoul, the capital of South Korea for 21 days by wastewater-based epidemiology

22 illicit drugs were monitored in Seoul, the capital of South Korea for 21 days using wastewater-based epidemiology to assess the drug usage patterns for the first time by region and social status. Among the targeted compounds, 10 were detected, with consistent detection of methamphetamine in samples over the entire sampling period. In addition, ketamine had the highest estimated consumption rate at 47.5 mg/day/1000 people, followed by methamphetamine at 12.5 mg/day/1000 people. Methamphetamine and MDMA(3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) exhibited relatively stable daily patterns, with coefficients of variation of 7.03 %, and 13.4 % respectively. Furthermore, no statistically significant differences were observed between weekends and weekdays for all compounds (Mann-Whitney Rank Sum test, p > 0.05). Statistically significant regional differences in drug consumption were observed for methamphetamine, MDMA, and ketamine (Mann-Whitney Rank Sum test, p < 0.05). These differences were found to be related to average annual income and educational levels.