Same-sex Others Research Articles

Mate preference dissimilarity predicts friendship attraction at zero-acquaintance for men, not women

We hypothesized that dissimilar mate preferences would augment friendship attraction in zero-acquaintance interactions whereas similar mate preferences would hinder friendship attraction. Heterosexual participants completed an online survey to assess their mate preferences. They also rated the attractiveness of opposite-sex photos. Next, they attended a 3-hr speed-friending session in which they interacted with same-sex others for 3-min each. After each interaction, they completed a 2-min assessment about the person they just met. Two sessions were held, one for women ( N = 20) and one for men ( N = 18). The social relations model was used to regress unique feelings of friendship attraction on similarity in terms of mate preferences while controlling for perceiver and target variance. Our hypothesis was supported among men: Interactions in which two people differed in mate preferences were rated more positively than those in which participants had similar mate preferences. These results are consistent with Parental Investment Theory and highlight the importance of mate preferences in friendship attraction among men.

Calibration and fitness-linked correlates of personality in Conambo, Ecuador

We present a study testing the existence and correlates of personality concepts in the village of Conambo, Ecuador, which is home to horticultural-foragers located in the Sápara Territory of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Lexical terms to describe the three focal personality concepts from the HEXACO taxonomy—Sociability, Immodesty, and Un-emotionality—were interpreted from Spanish into the Indigenous languages of Achuar and Quichua. These terms were employed in a photo ranking task wherein 76 adult community members ranked the relative standing of same-sex others on each personality concept. Inter-ranker agreement was high for Sociability and Immodesty, but low for Un-emotionality. We tested the associations among individual differences in (i) Sociability and Immodesty, (ii) hierarchical status and fertility, which are hypothesized fitness-linked benefits of high Sociability and Immodesty, and (iii) physical strength, which is a hypothesized calibrator of status-oriented personality strategies. Using Bayesian models and psychological networks including age controls, we found good evidence that men's physical strength associated positively with Sociability, Immodesty, and status. Among both sexes, Sociability and Immodesty exhibited strong positive correlations with status, but evidence was weaker that the personality traits associated with fertility. Status associated positively with fertility among both sexes. We conclude that two personality concepts imported from the HEXACO and Big Five taxonomies, Sociability and Immodesty, exist with common meaning in the minds of Conambo villagers and appear adaptively patterned in relation to physical strength and fitness-linked outcomes. We argue that the photo ranking task employed in this research produces personality assessments with high validity and should therefore be adopted in future studies of individual differences in face-to-face groups.

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Intrasexual Competition Scale.

The Intrasexual Competition Scale (ICS) measures the extent to which individuals view their interaction with same-sex others in competitive terms. Although it is frequently used in studies investigating differences in mating behavior, the factor structure of the ICS has never been confirmed. Researchers have yet to use multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis to test whether the properties of the scale are equivalent between the sexes. In Study 1, we report on an investigation in which participants' responses to the ICS were submitted to exploratory factor analysis (EFA). In Study 2A, we compared the fit of one and two-factor models from the EFA as well as two additional models, using confirmatory factor analysis with an independent sample. The best fit was obtained by a two-factor solution, which reflected: (1) respondents' feelings of frustration when intrasexual competitors are better off (Inferiority Frustration), and (2) respondents' enjoyment of being better than intrasexual competitors (Superiority Enjoyment). This model achieved a high degree of measurement invariance. In Study 2B, we found the ICS had good concurrent validity via associations with sociosexuality, mating effort, and sexual behavior. Together, these analyses suggest that the ICS is a valid measure of intrasexually competitive attitudes.

Does classroom social comparison bias students’ evaluation of their own competence?

Overestimation and underestimation of students’ own competence result from social comparison in the classroom. There is some evidence that secondary school students compare their results with those of one or two same-sex others who perform slightly better than themselves. The first objective of this study was to replicate these findings among younger students (9–11 years old) in mathematics and language arts (French). The second objective was to consider the identification with the target as a moderator factor, because findings have been divergent regarding the positive or negative influence of social comparison on students’ academic self-evaluation. We expected firstly that absolute upward comparison to be beneficial for students’ self-evaluation bias of competence provided they identified with their upward target. Secondly, we expected their perception of their target’s competence (relative comparison) to contribute to students’ self-evaluation bias of competence and to be negatively related to it. The results indicated a tendency to compare upward and revealed that absolute upward comparison was positively related to the students’ self-evaluation bias of competence in mathematics and French. This relationship was stronger when the students identified with their upward target. In contrast, relative comparison was negatively related to their self-evaluation bias of competence in mathematics and French. To sum up, these results reveal the need to consider identification with the comparison target when studying the relationship between social comparison and academic self-evaluation and to consider relative and absolute comparison simultaneously in order to bring out the full contribution of social comparison in the classroom.

An Experimental Investigation of Variations in Judgments of Hypothetical Males and Females Initiating Mixed-Gender Threesomes: An Application of Sexual Script Theory.

Although many young adults are interested in mixed-gender threesomes (MGTs), little research has assessed attitudes toward them. Yet, MGTs offer a rare context to investigate how consensually nonmonogamous sexual encounters and involvement with same-sex others influence attitudes. Thus, by adopting sexual script theory as a framework, the current study compared three dimensions of character judgments (cognitive abilities, morality, partner quality) and assumptions about the sexual history of hypothetical males and females who initiated a MGT (two females and one male; two males and one female) or mixed-sex dyadic sexual activity with a casual or committed partner. To do so, a between-subject design was adopted in which 690 U.S. adults (405 women, 285 men) evaluated a hypothetical initiator described in one of 12 vignettes. On average, participants made neutral judgments about the initiator, yet those initiating dyadic sexual behavior were judged more favorably and as having a less extensive sexual history than MGT initiators. Male initiators were judged more favorably than female initiators, particularly by men. Those initiating in the context of a committed relationship were judged as more moral and as higher-quality partners than those initiating within a casual relationship; female (but not male) initiators in the committed context were judged as having a less extensive sexual history than female initiators in the casual context. These results confirm the presence of mononormativity biases and the sexual double standard and have implications for educators and practitioners related to stigma reduction and the promotion of inclusive sexual education.

Hormones in speed-dating: The role of testosterone and cortisol in attraction

There is evidence that testosterone and cortisol levels are related to the attraction of a romantic partner; testosterone levels relate to a wide range of sexual behaviors and cortisol is a crucial component in the response to stress. To investigate this, we conducted a speed-dating study among heterosexual singles. We measured salivary testosterone and cortisol changes in men and women (n = 79) when they participated in a romantic condition (meeting opposite-sex others, i.e., potential romantic partners), as well as a control condition (meeting same-sex others, i.e., potential friends). Over the course of the romantic speed-dating event, results showed that women's but not men's testosterone levels increased and cortisol levels decreased for both men and women. These findings indicate that men's testosterone and cortisol levels were elevated in anticipation of the event, whereas for women, this appears to only be the case for cortisol. Concerning the relationship between attraction and hormonal change, four important findings can be distinguished. First, men were more popular when they arrived at the romantic speed-dating event with elevated cortisol levels. Second, in both men and women, a larger change in cortisol levels during romantic speed-dating was related to more selectivity. Third, testosterone alone was unrelated to any romantic speed-dating outcome (selectivity or popularity). However, fourth, women who arrived at the romantic speed-dating event with higher testosterone levels were more selective when their anticipatory cortisol response was low. Overall, our findings suggest that changes in the hormone cortisol may be stronger associated with the attraction of a romantic partner than testosterone.

Gendered Peer Involvement in Girls with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Effects of Prenatal Androgens, Gendered Activities, and Gender Cognitions.

A key question in understanding gender development concerns the origins of sex segregation. Children's tendencies to interact with same-sex others have been hypothesized to result from gender identity and cognitions, behavioral compatibility, and personal characteristics. We examined whether prenatal androgen exposure was related to time spent with boys and girls, and how that gendered peer involvement was related to sex-typed activities and gender identity and cognitions. We studied 54 girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) aged 10-13years varying in degree of prenatal androgen exposure: 40 girls with classical CAH (C-CAH) exposed to high prenatal androgens and 14 girls with non-classical CAH (NC-CAH) exposed to low, female-typical, prenatal androgens. Home interviews and questionnaires provided assessments of gendered activity interests and participation, gender identity, and gender cognitions. Daily phone calls over 7days assessed time spent in gendered activities and with peers. Girls with both C-CAH and NC-CAH interacted more with girls than with boys, with no significant group differences. The groups did not differ significantly in gender identity or gender cognitions, but girls with C-CAH spent more time in male-typed activities and less time in female-typed activities than did girls with NC-CAH. Time spent with girls reflected direct effects of gender identity/cognitions and gender-typed activities, and an indirect effect of prenatal androgens (CAH type) through gender-typed activities. Our results extend findings that prenatal androgens differentially affect gendered characteristics and that gendered peer interactions reflect combined effects of behavioral compatibility and feelings and cognitions about gender. The study also shows the value of natural experiments for testing hypotheses about gender development.

There is more: Intrasexual competitiveness, physical dominance, and intrasexual collaboration.

It is emphasized that in organizational settings, the responses to same-sex attractive others are enhanced among individuals high in intrasexual competitiveness; that especially attractive rivals who are perceived as unfriendly will induce competition; that among males, physical dominance may induce more competition than physical attractiveness; and that especially males may prefer to associate with attractive same-sex others for intrasexual collaboration.

Intrasexual competitiveness and personality traits: A study in Uruguay

Intrasexual competitiveness refers to a competitive attitude towards same-sex others. The present study examined the relation between intrasexual competitiveness as measured with the scale developed by Buunk and Fisher (2009) and the Big Five personality traits. A sample of 140 adults (age M=36.62, SD=11.04) from the community of Montevideo, Uruguay completed the scale for intrasexual competitiveness and the NEO-FFI. The intrasexual competitiveness scale was found to be reliable and sex neutral, and had a coefficient of congruence of 0.97, suggesting that the Dutch and Spanish versions can be considered as equal. In line with the findings of Buunk and Fisher, regression analyses showed that among women, intrasexual competitiveness was predicted by a lack of agreeableness and a high level of neuroticism, and among men by high levels of neuroticism and extraversion. The possible evolutionary background of these sex differences is discussed.

Men and Money

Past studies suggested that sex ratio influences individuals’ economic behaviors; however, the underlying mechanism of this effect remains unclear. In the current work, we examined how sex ratio influenced women’s preference for relative gain over greater absolute gain in the context of games involving resource allocation between oneself and another woman; the role of intrasexual competition in this process was also explored. By experimentally manipulating women’s perceptions of local sex ratio, the present study found that women primed with a female-biased sex ratio (i.e., an excess of women) showed higher levels of intrasexual competition. Exposure to the cue of a scarcity of men also led women to care more about their relative gain compared with absolute gain. The effect of sex ratio on shifts of women’s preference between relative gain and absolute gain was mediated by the strength of women’s competitive attitude toward same-sex others. These findings suggest that, by altering the intensity of female–female competition, sex ratio may have a pronounced effect on women’ economic-related decisions.

Physically-attractive males increase men's financial risk-taking

Prior research has examined how sexual opposite-sex stimuli impact people's choices and behaviors. However, it is largely unknown whether sexual same-sex stimuli also do so. This research reports an intriguing phenomenon: men who see attractive males take greater financial risks than those who do not. An evolution-based account is proffered and tested across four experiments. In evolutionary history, men have faced greater intrasexual competition in attracting women as a mating partner. Thus, when the average heterosexual man sees males who are more physically-attractive than he is, he is motivated to increase his desirability as a mating partner to women, prompting him to accrue money, and taking financial risks helps him to do so. This research concludes by discussing the implications of the present findings for men today who are constantly bombarded by not only sexual opposite but also same-sex others, such as images that are commonly used in advertising.

A night on the town: when the importance of mate acquisition overrides intrasexual competition

It is argued that, while men may be intrasexually more competitive than women, to attract potential mates, men will, more than women, associate with same-sex friends who are attractive to the opposite sex. Therefore, more than women, men will choose more physically attractive and dominant companions in a mating context than in a neutral context. In Study 1 among 262 participants a mating scenario (going to a party) and a neutral scenario (seeing a movie) were developed, and it was shown that the mating scenario did indeed induce more a mating context than the neutral scenario. In Study 2 among 167 participants the hypotheses were tested by examining the preferences for a companion in both scenarios. The findings from Study 2 supported the predictions. In response to the mating as compared to the neutral scenario, men, but not women, found the attractiveness of a companion more important, preferred a more socially dominant companion, and found the social dominance of a companion more important. Men as well as women preferred in general companions who were less attractive than themselves, but preferred a more attractive companion in a mating than in a neutral context. The effects for social dominance were in general more pronounced among individuals high in sociosexual orientation (SOI). To conclude especially mens’ attitude towards same sex others in a mating context may be driven by the desire to associate, rather than to compete, with same-sex others who are attractive to the opposite sex.

The “sword of a woman”: Gossip and female aggression

Abstract An interest in the affairs of same-sex others is especially strong among females, and women are more likely than men to use gossip in an aggressive, competitive manner. The goal of such gossip is to exclude competitors from a social group and damage the competitor's ability to maintain a reliable social network of her own. Timeworn assumptions about an affinity between females and negative gossip appear to be more than just a stereotype. Understanding the dynamics of competitive gossip may also give us insight into related social phenomena such as how people use social media such as Facebook.

At the interface of social cognition and psychometrics: Manipulating the sex of the reference class modulates sex differences in personality traits

Psychometric surveys suggest that sex differences in personality are minimal. Herein, we argue that (a) the mind is likely biased toward assessing oneself relative to same-sex others, and (b) this bias may affect the measurement of sex differences in personality. In support of this, an experiment demonstrates modulation of sex differences on the HEXACO facets by manipulating the sex of the “reference class”—the group of people subjects compare themselves to when making self-assessments on survey items. Although patterns varied across traits, sex differences were relatively small in the “unspecified” and “same-sex” reference class conditions—but substantially larger in the “opposite-sex” condition. These findings point to a same-sex comparison bias that may impact the measurement of sex differences in personality.

Four strategies used during intrasexual competition for mates

Research on intrasexual competition for mates focused on the strategies of self‐promotion and competitor derogation. Although these strategies describe many competitive behaviors, it was predicted that they do not describe all possible strategies. In Study 1, a qualitative investigation, participants reported how they compete with same‐sex rivals for mates. This led to the discovery of the strategies of competitor manipulation and mate manipulation. All 4 strategies were compared and no sex difference in their frequency of application was found. In Study 2, a quantitative survey using the 4 strategies was created. There was no sex difference in strategy use, but those involved in a romantic relationship were significantly more likely to use competitor derogation than any other strategy.

The Mere Presence of Opposite-Sex Others on Judgments of Sexual and Romantic Desirability: Opposite Effects for Men and Women

Men's and women's mate preferences impose on each a unique set of adaptive problems that must be solved when judging the desirability of prospective mates. One potentially revealing source of information about an individual's desirability as a romantic partner is contained in the decisions made by same-sex others. The present studies predicted that men's and women's desirability assessments would be affected in opposite ways when target persons were depicted with members of the target's opposite sex. Study 1 (N = 847) documented that women rated men more desirable when shown surrounded by women than when shown alone or with other men (a desirability enhancement effect). In sharp contrast, men rated women less desirable when shown surrounded by men than when shown alone or with women (a desirability diminution effect) . Study 2 (N = 627) demonstrated similar sexually divergent effects for estimates of the desirability of same-sex competitors.

Adaptive allocation of attention: effects of sex and sociosexuality on visual attention to attractive opposite-sex faces

We tested the hypothesis that, compared with sociosexually restricted individuals, those with an unrestricted approach to mating would selectively allocate visual attention to attractive opposite-sex others. We also tested for sex differences in this effect. Seventy-four participants completed the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory and performed a computer-based task that assessed the speed with which they detected changes in attractive and unattractive male and female faces. Differences in reaction times served as indicators of selective attention. Results revealed a Sex×Sociosexuality interaction: Compared with sociosexually restricted men, unrestricted men selectively allocated attention to attractive opposite-sex others; no such effect emerged among women. This finding was specific to opposite-sex targets and did not occur in attention to same-sex others. These results contribute to a growing literature on the adaptive allocation of attention in social environments.

Gender and Age Differences in Same-Sex Aggregation and Social Behavior

Children's tendencies to aggregate with same-sex others and to increase spatial experience with age are investigated among 3- to 9-year-olds in four non-Western communities. Also investigated are genderspecific social behaviors, labeled by Eleanor Maccoby as male-styleand female-styleplay. Analysis of naturalistic observations of daily activities indicate that during free time in all cultures, older children (7- and 9-year-olds) are much more involved in both same-sex aggregation and away-from-home spatial experience than are younger children (3- and 5-year-olds) and that older boys are more strongly involved in these events than are older girls. Older boys also display a marked degree of same-sex aggregation when enacting the male-style behaviors of physicality and attention seeking, but girls do not display a similar same-sex aggregation for any category of social behavior. Children's levels of gender understanding are unrelated to the outcomes.

The Prison Lesbian Revisited

One aspect of women's imprisonment that has received consistent scholarly and public interest is homosexuality. These experiences are generally seen as a subcultural adaptation to the stresses and deprivations of the environment, that is, as situational, and little attention has been given to the implications they might have for the sexual identity of the women involved or to the possibility that some women may continue involvement in same-sex relationships after prison. In-depth interviews with 40 incarcerated women were conducted to explore their experiences with same-sex relationships in prison. Some condemned same-sex relationships but others became involved in them for companionship and other reasons. While some women saw their involvements as limited to prison, others were questioning their sexual identity and thought they might continue the same or other same-sex relationships on the outside.

Children who question their heterosexuality.

Many gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults report a period of childhood sexual questioning--an uneasy questioning of their heterosexuality brought on by same-sex attractions and motivating same-sex sexual exploration. This article evaluates hypotheses about the correlates, causes, and consequences of childhood sexual questioning. Participants were 182 children in the 4th through 8th grades. Compared with children more confident in their heterosexuality, sexual-questioning children reported more impaired self-concepts, fewer same-sex-typed attributes (but not more cross-sex-typed attributes), a greater sense of feeling different from same-sex others, and lesser satisfaction with their gender assignment. Short-term longitudinal analyses indicated that sexual questioning is more likely a determinant than a consequence of these correlated variables. However, influences of sexual questioning on these outcomes were small.