Salt Ponds Research Articles

Recovery of high purity sodium chloride from seawater bittern by precipitation-evaporation method

Seawater bittern is a liquid that still exists after most of the NaCl has crystalized in the production of salt from seawater. The main components of the liquid are MgCl2 and NaCl. This study aims to recover the NaCl present in bittern through the precipitation method with NaOH and evaporation. The initial stage of this research was collection of bittern in the salt production process in a salt pond. The obtained bittern samples were then added with NaOH to precipitate the MgCl2 components as Mg(OH)2 and leave NaCl as filtrate. The precipitate and the filtrate were separated by filtration. The obtained NaCl filtrate is then evaporated to obtain high purity NaCl. The product obtained was then determined the NaCl contents by argentometric titration. NaCl crystal was characterized using FTIR spectroscopy XRD spectroscopy, and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The recovery results showed that the NaCl obtained had a high purity of 98.75% w/w and yield 30,45%. The IR spectra and diffractogram obtained showed compatibility with the characteristics of the reference NaCl.

Resiliencia de la actividad salinera artesanal ante la presencia de huracanes en la costa de Yucatán, México

Las charcas de sal artesanal de la ría norte de la península de Yucatán son sumamente vulnerables a los abundantes huracanes a los que están expuestos. La extracción de sal, sin embargo, forma parte de un sistema socioambiental que la hace sumamente resiliente. Se trata de una adaptación costera diversificada generada por una población que seguramente, desde tiempos precolombinos, la ha interiorizado como una actividad económica más. La experiencia técnica se transmite de generación en generación aun cuando se haya abandonado la actividad por años. Es posible que su mayor fortaleza se encuentre en el hecho de que las charcas eventualmente se recuperarán solas independientemente de los daños generados, y que su explotación permanecerá exclusivamente como una alternativa posible para llevarse a cabo cuando sea el momento.

Microbiome Analysis Reveals Diversity and Function of Mollicutes Associated with the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica

Despite their biological and ecological significance, a mechanistic characterization of microbiome function is frequently missing from many nonmodel marine invertebrates. As an initial step toward filling this gap for the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica , this study provides an integrated taxonomic and functional analysis of the oyster microbiome using samples from a coastal salt pond in August 2017.

Estimation of Water Coverage in Permanent and Temporary Shallow Lakes and Wetlands by Combining Remote Sensing Techniques and Genetic Programming: Application to the Mediterranean Basin of the Iberian Peninsula

This work aims to validate the wide use of an algorithm developed using genetic programing (GP) techniques allowing to discern between water and non-water pixels using the near infrared band and different thresholds. A total of 34 wetlands and shallow lakes of 18 ecological types were used for validation. These include marshes, salt ponds, and saline and freshwater, temporary and permanent shallow lakes. Furthermore, based on the spectral matching between Landsat and Sentinel-2 sensors, this methodology was applied to Sentinel-2 imagery, improving the spatial and temporal resolution. When compared to other techniques, GP showed better accuracy (over 85% in most cases) and acceptable kappa values in the estimation of water pixels (κ ≥ 0.7) in 10 of the 18 assayed ecological types evaluated with Landsat-7 and Sentinel-2 imagery. The improvements were especially achieved for temporary lakes and wetlands, where existing algorithms were scarcely reliable. This shows that GP algorithms applied to remote sensing satellite imagery can be a valuable tool to monitor water coverage in wetlands and shallow lakes where multiple factors cause a low resolution by commonly used water indices. This allows the reconstruction of hydrological series showing their hydrological behaviors during the last three decades, being useful to predict how their hydrological pattern may behave under future global change scenarios.

Makrozoobhentos di Pesisir Pantai Kalaki Kec. Palibelo Kab. Bima Nusa Tenggara Barat

Sampling of macrozoobenthos was carried out in the coastal areas of Kalaki, Pallibelo sub-district, Bima, consisting of Station I (the coastal area near the salt ponds) and Station II (the coastal area far from the salt ponds). Determination of the station is done by purposive sampling method. This type of research is a quantitative exploratory survey. The type of data taken is 1) macrozoobhentos data, 2) habitat data (abiotic factors). Data analysis uses the shannon-wiener index (H '), the Population Density Index (KP), and the Krebs Uniformity Index (E). The results showed temperature (30-33 oC: 25-28 oC), Ph (6-6.5: 6-6.7), salinity (20-25%: 27-33%). Macrozoobenthos found consisted of actinopteri, malacostraca, bivalvia, and atinopterygii classes. The number of macrozoobenthos identified was 153 species consisting of a family of 84 species, 56 species of penaeidae, 4 types of chanidae, 3 types of Arcidae, Mytilidae, Veneridae, Anguillidae of 2 species each. Diversity index H '= 1.132: 0.952, Uniformity Index Value (E) = (0.582: 0.489), Population Density Value (KP) Scylla sp. 5,143-6,857 and 0.143 for the Pena viridis, Metrix metrix, Anguilla bicolor. 3. As a result of exploitation in the form of salt ponds, the abundance of macrozoobenthos in the coastal area of Kalaki, Palibelo Subdistrict, Bima Regency, has decreased significantly with marked sedimentation and turbidity levels. This allows damage to the coast ecosystem

Salt Marketing Strategy in Lombok Timur Regency, Nusa Tenggara Barat

Marketing is the main problem felt by salt farmers in East Lombok Regency, especially during the harvest season, which has an impact on the conversion of the salt pond land to cultivation land. This research aims to: 1) identify salt marketing channels in East Lombok Regency, 2) develop salt marketing strategy in East Lombok Regency. This research uses qualitative methods and the data will be analyzed by SWOT analysis.Efficient salt marketing occurs when the marketing channels include producers (salt farmers)-cooperatives /micro, small and medium enterprises-consumers, because it can shorten marketing channels and-reduce operational costs. Marketing of salt in East Lombok Regency can be carried out with several strategies, namely: 1) Maximizing the role of cooperatives and micro, small and medium enterprises in salt marketing, 2) Improving the quality of human resources in managing the salt business, 3) Formulating regulations on salt trading, and 4) Providing production technology training to salt farmers and salt micro, small and medium enterprises.

The Effects of Dry and Wet Grinding Processes on The Salt Quality

Studies were conducted on the salt quality, such as NaCl percent and whiteness achieved by dry and wet grinding methods. Crude solar salt is carefully collected from traditional solar salt ponds to ensure the uniformity of the sample. Several salt processing methods were applied in this research, such as washing, grinding, and dewatering by centrifuge hydro extractor and drying. The effect of reducing salt particle size to 0.6 and 0.25 mm was also studied. The dry grinding method is conducted before the washing stage, while the wet grinding method is applied after the washing stage. Both dry and wet grinding methods provide high-quality salt products, indicating high NaCl percent and whiteness. The dry grinding method produces higher NaCl percent and whiteness than the wet grinding method. However, the wet grinding method was better in water management and equipment durability with loss of salt losses during the washing stage. Finally, both grinding methods have advantages and disadvantages, so for developing the salt processing industry, both methods should be correctly chosen and match product output requirements.

Analisis Spasio-Temporal Perubahan Luas Lahan Garam di Pesisir Kabupaten Rembang

The increase in salt consumption is not proportional to the growth of salt production land. So far, the mapping of salt ponds has been carried out on a small to medium scale, so the accuracy is not too good. This study aimed to analyze changes in large-scale salt ponds in Rembang Regency during the period of 2005-2015. The data source used is a Very High-Resolution Satellite Image (CSRST) which has been corrected and other secondary data. Salt area was calculated through visual interpretation and manual detection. CSRST data usage by visual interpretation methods and manual detection had advantages in terms of geometric accuracy compared with the use of medium-sized image of automation methods. The analysis showed that the area of salt land in Rembang Regency increased during 2005-2015. The biggest increase occurred in 2005-2011, which increased by 546,255 ha or by 32%. The increase in area during 2011-2015 was not significant by 198.45 ha (11.46%). Area expansion was expected to occur in the next few years, but it was not expected to be significant because of the optimal land use in the most of Rembang already. Expansion of salt ponds remained possible by converting the existing rice fields on the coast of Rembang Regency. However, a comparative study of the economic value of rice fields and salt ponds must be carried out before converting the paddy fields to salt ponds.

KAJIAN PENGEMBANGAN TAMBAK GARAM DI PULAU TANAKEKE KABUPATEN TAKALAR

Salt is one of the national strategic commodities. But until now the notional needs of salt have not been met by national salt production in the country, one of the efforts to increase salt production in the country is to optimize existing potential salt field. The island of tanakeke in takalar district of southern sulawesi province has a potential salt field, wich is not yet well watered. The reseach’s aims (1) to anayize potential land appropriations for the development of salt pans on tanakeke island (2) to analize the salt-farm development cost (3) to determine salt pond development strategies based on the characteristics of the research area. Research suggetts that the total potential land most suitable for development of salt pond at 1.106,58 ha or about 38,91 % of the total land on Tanakeke islands. Based on the financial analysis of the salt pond with geomembran method on an acre of land on tanakeke islands are feasible to continue. Followed by the investment criteria acquired by NPV>1, Net B/C>1 and IRR>discount rate. Selected combination of strategies (1) Priority strategies; Training in increased human resource capacity and Infrastructure improvements. (2) altenative strategies; salt regulatory improvements.

Shift in benthic diatom community structure and salinity thresholds in a hypersaline environment of solar saltern, Korea

The community dynamics of benthic diatoms in the hypersaline environment are investigated to advance our understanding how salinity impacts marine life. Diatoms were sampled in the two salterns encompassing salt Ponds, ditches, and seawater reservoirs (n = 11), along the salinity gradient (max = 324 psu), and nearby tidal flats (n = 2). The floral assemblages and distributions across sites and stations showed great variations, with a total of 169 identified taxa. First, not surprisingly, higher diversity of benthic diatoms was found at natural tidal flats than salterns. The saltern diatoms generally showed salinity dependent distributions with distinct spatial changes in species composition and dominant taxa. Biota-environment and principal component analysis confirmed that salinity, mud content, and total nitrogen were key factors influencing the overall benthic community structure. Some dominant species, e.g., Nitzschia scalpelliformis and Achnanthes sp. 1, showed salinity tolerance / preference. The number of diatom species at salinity of >100 psu reduced over half and no diatoms were found at maximum salinity of 324 psu. The highest salinity for the observed live diatoms was 205 psu, however, a simple regression indicated a theoretical salinity threshold of ~300 psu on the survival. Finally, the indicator species were identified along the salinity gradient in salterns as well as natural tidal flats. Overall, high species numbers, varying taxa, and euryhaline distributions of saltern diatoms collectively reflected a dynamic saltern ecosystem. The present study would provide backgrounds for biodiversity monitoring of ecologically important microalgal producers in some unique hypersaline environment, and elsewhere. Key words: benthic diatom; hypersaline; indicator species; salinity gradient; saltern

A study of mineralized water using geophysical and hydrogeochemical approaches in Khwelen salt ponds, Sangaw, Sulaymaniyah, NE of Iraq

Groundwater is the main source of Khwelen village for domestic and household purposes, furthermore for salt production via salt evaporation ponds. Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and hydrogeochemical approaches are used to understand the regime and distribution patterns of different types of mineralized water flowing through several springs and wells in a restricted area does not exceed 0.14 Km2. The high salty one using for producing salt for more than hundreds of years and the sulfurous one that has bad odder. The area is covered by Fatha Formation which has four types of depositional cycles, two of them are considered as impermeable layers they are claystone and marlstone, the others are Limestone and Gypsum layers that characterized by highly fractured and caverns. The inverse sections of the resistivity imaging showing the occurrence of 22 caves of different sizes and at different depths. They are classified into two groups, 10 cavities detected in the Gypsum layers showing high resistivity ranging from 350 Ohm.m to 1200 Ohm.m, they are most probably making the underground paths of the sulfurous groundwater. The second group is 12 cavities appear in the limestone layers of the Fatha Formation and they are showing very low resistivity ranging from 0.4 Ohm.m to 4 Ohm.m and forming excellent paths of the high salty underground water. ERT shows high applicability for finding the boundary between the saline and sulfurous mineralized water.
 The groundwater chemistry is controlled by many overriding factors which are: dissolution, mineral precipitation, cation exchange, and salinization, besides the effects of localized topography, mixing, and geology. These processes are proved from the results of ionic concentrations, saturation indices, HFE diagram, and oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopes.

Salinadaptatus halalkaliphilus gen. nov., sp. nov., a haloalkaliphilic archaeon isolated from salt pond in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China.

A haloalkaliphilic strain XQ-INN 246T was isolated from the sediment of a salt pond in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, China. Cells of the strain were rods, motile and strictly aerobic. The strain was able to grow in the presence of 2.6-5.3 M NaCl (optimum concentration is 4.4 M) at 30-50 °C (optimum temperature is 42 °C) and pH 7.0-10.0 (optimum pH is 8.0-8.5). The whole genome sequencing of strain XQ-INN 246T revealed a genome size of 4.52 Mbp and a DNA G+C content of 62.06 mol%. Phylogenetic tree based on 16S rRNA gene sequences and concatenated amino acid sequences of 122 single-copy conserved proteins revealed a robust lineage of the strain XQ-INN 246T with members of related genera of the family Natrialbaceae. The strain possessed the polar lipids of phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester. No glycolipids were detected. Based on phylogenetic analysis, phenotypic characteristics, chemotaxonomic properties and genome relatedness, the isolate was proposed as the type strain of a novel species of a new genus within the family Natrialbaceae, for which the name Salinadaptatus halalkaliphilus gen. nov., sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is XQ-INN 246T (=CGMCC 1.16692T=JCM 33751T).

Comparative diversity analysis of halophiles at two polar saltern systems in Indramayu, West Java, Indonesia.

Successive microbes in solar salt ponds are essential since it is well correlated with the quality of salt produced. This research aimed to analyse the microbial diversity of the solar salt ponds in Indonesia, which use high-density polyethylene in the ponds. There are two systems, that is, an integrated open system (In-system) and a closed system (Tt-system). The In-system uses seawater while the Tt-system uses seawater from the saline artesian well. Results showed that the In-system had richer microbes than the Tt-system. Both systems shared similar halophilic microbes profile. Ponds with low salinity (3-4 Be) had very low archaea, that is, 0·2 and 0·7% for the In-system and Tt-system respectively and were dominantly inhabited by phylum Proteobacteria. In the pond with high salinity, that is, 25 Be, both systems were dominated by the phylum Euryarchaeota, family Halobacteriaceae, and genera Halorubrum was dominantly found in In25 ponds and Tt25 ponds. Even though the two systems use the same parent seawater, that is, the Java Sea and share similar microbial composition at the phylum level, we found the dominance identified microbes in both systems were different.

Effect of initial handling by artisanal fishermen on the quality of penaeid shrimps in Kurawa on the north coast of Kenya

This study was conducted to determine the effect of initial handling on the quality of shrimps during and after catch by the artisanal fishermen in Kurawa on the north coast of Kenya. Fishermen collected shrimps from salt ponds and carried them using both insulated and bucket containers. A portion of samples was preserved with ice immediately after catch (control), while the rest were carried in buckets to the landing site and a portion preserved immediately upon arrival (0-hr). The remaining samples were sub-sampled and preserved with ice after 2 hours (2-hr), 4 hours (4-hr) and 6 hours (6-hr), respectively. Biochemical parameters (Total Volatile Bases - Nitrogen, Trimethylamine-Nitrogen, Peroxide Value, p-Anisidine Value) and proximate composition parameters (dry matter, protein, fat and ash content) were used to monitor quality changes of samples with delayed icing. Results showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in biochemical parameter values over time. This indicated progressive deterioration in quality of shrimp with increased delay in icing. Samples preserved immediately after catch (control) exhibited best quality, followed by 0-hr, 2-hr, 4-hr and 6-hr samples, respectively. In general, increased delay in icing caused significant deterioration of shrimp quality although most samples remained within acceptable standard quality limits for the 6-hr delayed icing period.

Impact of salt pond industry on the changes of mangrove ecosystem in Kupang Bay, Timor Island, Indonesia

Abstract. Kapitan EM, Arjana IGB, Santoso P. 2020. Impact of salt pond industry on the changes of mangrove ecosystem in Kupang Bay, Timor Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 63-73. The study of the effect of salt pond industry on changes in mangrove ecosystems in Kupang Bay was carried out between July and September 2018. This study aims to examine the effect of the salt pond area and salt pond production on the dominance and diversity of mangrove population. The study was conducted by survey method through direct observation in the field and community interviews at three research stations. Data on mangrove vegetation were collected using the line transect method. The results of the study found 9 (nine) species from 4 (four) families. Overall tree density is relatively rare while seedling levels are categorized as high. The highest frequency types for tree level, saplings, and seedlings, namely Ceriops tagal. The results of the regression analysis showed that the area of salt ponds and the production of salt ponds did not have a significant effect on dominance and diversity of mangrove population (p>0.05). However, there was a positive relationship between salt pond area and salt pond production with the dominance of the mangrove population. Whereas, both salt pond area and salt pond production with a diversity of mangrove populations showed a negative relationship. These results indicate a tendency that an increase in both salt pond area and salt production will increase the dominance of the mangrove population, but decrease its diversity. This shows that the influence of the salt pond area and salt pond production has not had a significant effect on the dominance and diversity of mangrove populations in the current conditions.

Estimated economic value of the lost coastal resources due to tsunami in September 2018 in Palu City, Indonesia

The coastal area of Palu City has natural resources that are utilized by the community for fishing activities, marine tourism, salt pond, and culinary business. However, the tsunami disaster in September 2018 caused the loss of some coastal resources and community businesses that affected the regional economy. This study aims to estimate the value of the presence and loss of Palu coastal resources through fisheries activities, marine tourism, and other utilization activities. The analytical method used is the analysis of Total Economic Value. The results showed that before the earthquake and tsunami disaster in Palu City, the total economic value of coastal resource services owned was IDR 237.92 billion per year. The economic value lost due to the disaster is estimated at IDR 127.53 billion or more than half the initial economic value.

High productivity of Peneroplis (Foraminifera) including aberrant morphotypes, in an inland thalassic salt pond at Lake Macleod, Western Australia

Abstract Growth variability in extant Peneroplis has drawn attention since early times. There is general agreement that the aberrations in recent populations of Peneroplis are natural and intraspecific. For these reasons, some authors have questioned the systematic relationships among living Peneroplis species. In this study, we explore variation in an exceptionally abundant population of Peneroplis from Pete's Pond, a permanent wetland, within the Lake Macleod Evaporate Basin, Western Australia. The area is unusual because foraminifera are isolated from the nearby ocean, except for a 15-km subterranean karst system that permits a constant delivery of seawater. Pete's Pond water salinities are either less than or at normal seawater levels. The morphological variations identified have been grouped, with morphogroups A, B, and C referred to as variants of the Peneroplis growth pattern, including morphotypes with high flaring and cylindrical uniserial chambers. Morphogroups D and E are referred to as ‘abnormal’ aberrant forms, which show bifurcated serial chambers or a disordered growing style. Variants are the most critical in terms of taxonomic discrimination. Here we recommend the following morphological constraints for species determination of Peneroplis variants: i) degree of involution of early chambers; ii) presence/absence of umbilical depressions, iii) incision of sutures and iv) ornament, including the presence and disposition of small pits or ribs. Aberration in Peneroplis is considered to be linked to strict environmental parameters that have led to optimum shell growth as well as to having a key role in the phylogenesis of Soritoidea through deep time.

Sound characterization and fine-scale spatial mapping of an estuarine soundscape in the southeastern USA

Estuaries are areas known for biological diversity, and their soundscapes reflect the acoustic signals used by organisms to communicate, defend territories, reproduce, and forage in an environment that has limited visibility. These biological sounds may be rhythmic in nature, spatially heterogeneous, and can provide information on habitat quality. The goal of our study was to investigate the temporal and spatial variability of sounds in Chechessee Creek (Stns CC1 and CC2) and an adjacent saltwater impoundment (Great Salt Pond, GSP) in South Carolina, USA, from April to November 2016. Fixed recording platforms revealed that sound pressure levels (SPLs) were significantly higher in CC1 and CC2 compared to GSP. We detected some biological sounds in GSP (snapping shrimp genera Alpheus and Synalpheus, silver perch Bairdiella chrysoura, oyster toadfish Opsanus tau, spotted seatrout Cynoscion nebulosus, Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus, and American alligator Alligator mississippiensis); however, biological sound was much more prevalent in CC1 and CC2. In Chechessee Creek, snapping shrimp, oyster toadfish, and spotted seatrout sounds followed distinct temporal rhythms. Using these data, we conducted spatial passive acoustic surveys in Chechessee Creek. We discovered elevated high frequency SPLs (representing snapping shrimp acoustic activity) near an anti-erosion wall, as well as increased low frequency SPLs (indicating spotted seatrout spawning aggregations) near the anti-erosion wall and at the mouth of Chechessee Creek. This study has demonstrated the utility of combining stationary and mobile recording platforms to detect acoustic hotspots of biological sounds.

Structural Impacts, Carbon Losses, and Regeneration in Mangrove Wetlands after Two Hurricanes on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands

Hurricanes Irma and Maria ravaged the mangroves of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, in 2017. Basal area losses were large (63–100%) and storm losses of carbon associated with aboveground biomass amounted to 11.9–43.5 Mg C/ha. Carbon biomass of dead standing trees increased 8.1–18.3 Mg C/ha among sites, and carbon in coarse woody debris on the forest floor increased 1.9–18.2 Mg C/ha, with effects varying by mangrove typology. While St. John has only ~45 ha of mangroves, they exist as isolated basins, salt ponds, and fringe mangroves; the latter sometimes support diverse marine communities. Salt pond and fringe mangroves had proportionately more organic carbon (46.3 Mg C/ha) than inorganic carbon (1.1 Mg C/ha) in soils than isolated basins. Soil organic carbon was also appreciable in isolated basins (30.8 Mg C/ha) but was matched by inorganic C (36.7 Mg C/ha), possibly due to adjacent land use history (e.g., road construction), previous storm overwash, or geomorphology. Soil nitrogen stocks were low across all typologies. Mangroves had limited regeneration 26 months after the storms, and recovery on St. John may be hindered by pre-storm hydrologic change in some stands, and potential genetic bottlenecks and lack of propagule sources for expedient recovery in all stands.

Estimating the Potential Blue Carbon Gains From Tidal Marsh Rehabilitation: A Case Study From South Eastern Australia

Historically, coastal ecosystems (tidal marshes, mangrove forests, seagrass meadows) have been impacted and degraded by human intervention, mainly in the form of land acquisition. With increasing recognition of the role of blue carbon ecosystems in climate mitigation, protecting and rehabilitating these ecosystems becomes increasingly more important. This study evaluated the potential carbon gains from rehabilitating a degraded coastal tidal marsh site in south-eastern Australia. Tidal exchange at the study site had been restricted by the construction of earthen barriers for the purpose of reclaiming land for commercial salt production. Analysis of sediment cores (elemental carbon and Pb-210 dating) revealed that the site had stopped accumulating carbon since it had been converted to salt ponds 65 years earlier. In contrast, nearby recovered (control) tidal marsh areas are still accumulating carbon at relatively high rates (0.54 tons C ha(-1) year(-1)). Using elevation and sea level rise (SLR) data, we estimated the potential future distribution of tidal marsh vegetation if the earthen barrier were removed and tidal exchange was restored to the degraded site. We estimated that the sediment-based carbon gains over the next 50 years after restoring this small site (360 ha) would be 9,000 tons C, which could offset the annual emissions of similar to 7,000 passenger cars at present time (at 4.6 metric tons pa.) or similar to 1,400 Australians. Overall, we recommend that this site is a promising prospect for rehabilitation based on the opportunity for blue carbon additionality, and that the business case for rehabilitation could be bolstered through valuation of other co-benefits, such as nitrogen removal, support to fisheries, sediment stabilization, and enhanced biodiversity.