Salt Loading Research Articles

Interleukin-6 blockade reduces salt-induced cardiac inflammation and fibrosis in subtotal nephrectomized mice.

Cardiovascular disease is the most common comorbidity in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), affecting both their prognosis and quality of life. Cardiac fibrosis is common in patients with CKD with left ventricular diastolic dysfunction, and it is associated with increased risk of heart failure and mortality. Recent evidence suggests that high salt intake activates immune responses associated with local accumulation of sodium. We reported that high salt intake promotes cardiac inflammation in subtotal nephrectomized (Nx) mice. We investigated the effects of administration of MR16-1, a rat anti-mouse monoclonal interleukin (IL)-6 receptor antibody, in Nx mice with salt loading (Nx-salt). Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNAs and macrophage infiltration was significantly reduced in the heart of Nx-salt mice treated with MR16-1 (Nx-salt-MR16-1) compared with Nx-salt mice treated with control rat rat IgG1 (Nx-salt-rat IgG1). Correspondingly, cardiac fibrosis was significantly attenuated in Nx-salt-MR16-1 mice compared with Nx-salt-rat IgG1 mice. Furthermore, in the heart of Nx-salt-MR16-1 mice, expression of mRNA for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase-2, an oxidative stress marker, was significantly downregulated compared with Nx-salt-rat IgG1 mice. Increases in cardiac metabolites, including histidine and γ-butyrobetaine, were also reversed by IL-6 blockade treatment. In conclusion, IL-6 blockade exerts anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic, and partial antioxidative effects in the heart of Nx-salt mice.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In the present study, IL-6 blockade exerted anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic, and partial antioxidative effects on the hearts of mice with CKD on a high-salt diet. Therefore, IL-6 potentially mediates cardiac fibrosis induced by high salt intake in patients with CKD, a finding with therapeutic implications. Of note, the next therapeutic implication may simply be the reinforcement of low-salt diets or diuretics and further research on the anti-inflammatory effects of these measures rather than IL-6 blockade with high-salt diet.

Calculation and Measurement of Salt Loading in Metal–Organic Frameworks

The inclusion of salts within the pores of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) has been shown to increase the ionic conductivities of the salt ions relative to that of the bulk salt, raising the possibility that salt/MOF composites could be used as solid electrolytes. The present study explores the mechanism by which the inclusion of ionic liquids (ILs) occurs in MOFs and the mass loadings that can be achieved. Simulated annealing simulations and cyclic differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) experiments are used to investigate the loading of tetraethylammonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)-imide ([NEt4][TFSI]) salt in three different UiO-6x MOFs: UiO-66, UiO-67, and a defective form of UiO-66 containing missing linkers. Good agreement is achieved between the predicted loadings and those measured experimentally. An analysis of the spatial distribution of salt ions within the MOF pores as a function of loading shows that repulsive anion–anion and cation–cation electrostatic interactions contribute to the upper limit of loading. The surface area and void fraction of the MOFs approach zero at the maximum loading, suggesting that the ions completely fill the MOF pores. The absence of free volume at the maximum loading is proposed as an explanation for the decrease in conductivity observed in prior experiments; hence, conductivity will be maximized for loadings that do not fill the MOF pores. Finally, the surface area and pore volume of the empty MOFs are shown to be good predictors of the maximum salt loading.

Immediate pressor response to oral salt and its assessment in the clinic: a time series clinical trial

BackgroundHigh blood pressure (BP) is associated with high-salt consumption especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Although the pressor effect of salt is viewed as a chronic effect, some studies suggest that a salty meal may increase BP immediately in some individuals, and that this effect may cause endothelial dysfunction. Therefore, the aim of our research was to study the immediate pressor response to oral salt (IPROS) and its determinants, with the expectation that a simple methodology may be devised to diagnose it in the clinic or in low-resource environments.MethodsWe conducted a time series trial at Livingstone Central Hospital. We present data in 127 normotensive participants who ingested 2 g of sodium chloride; their BP was monitored for 120 minutes in intervals of 10 minutes. Sociodemographic and clinical data were collected. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used for analyses of data.ResultsMedian age was 30 years (interquartile range, 22–46 years) and 52% were female patients. An increase of ≥10 mmHg in mean arterial pressure (MAP), considered a clinically significant IPROS, was present in 62% of participants. Systolic BP 30 minutes after the salt load was a significant predictor of IPROS, avoiding the need to calculate MAP in the clinic setting.ConclusionsWe confirm the presence of an IPROS in a high proportion (62%) of otherwise normotensive participants. The average time course for this response was 30 minutes and its duration was sustained for the 120-minutes period of study in most of the participants. Prediction of IPROS by ∆SBP (change in systolic blood pressure) at 30 minutes allows for easy assessment of possible responder status in the clinic. Our data indicate that the IPROS to oral salt-loads in the range currently consumed by the Western world and African populations in single meals may increase the 24-hour BP load, which is a risk factor for hypertension and target organ damage. The relevance of our findings indicates the need to include dietary sodium assessment in the diagnosis, prevention, and management of high BP.

Arterial hypertension as a consequence of endothelial glycocalyx dysfunction: a modern view of the problem of cardiovascular diseases

Arterial hypertension (AH) is a leading risk factor for the development of cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and renal diseases, which are among the top 10 most common causes of death in the world. The etiology of hypertension has not been fully elucidated, but it has been established that endothelial dysfunction is the most significant pathogenetic link in the formation and progression of the disease. The data obtained in the last 10-15 years on endothelial glycocalyx (eGC) studies indicate that endothelial dysfunction is preceded by destabilization and shedding of eGC with the appearance of its soluble components in the blood, which is equivalent to a process that can be designated as eGC dysfunction. Signs of eGC dysfunction are expressed in the development of hypertension, diseases of the cardiovascular system, and their complications. The purpose of this review is to analyze and substantiate the pathophysiological role of eGC dysfunction in hypertension and cardiovascular diseases and to describe approaches for its assessment and pharmacological correction. Abstracts and full-size articles of 425 publications in Pubmed/MEDLINE databases over 20 years were studied. The review discusses the role of eGC in the regulation of vascular tone, endothelial barrier function, and anti-adhesive properties of eGC. Modifications of eGC under the influence of pro-inflammatory stimuli, changes in eGC with age, and with increased salt load are considered. The aspect associated with eGC dysfunction in atherosclerosis, hyperglycemia and hypertension is covered. Assessment of eGC dysfunction is difficult but can be performed by indirect methods, in particular by detecting eGC components in blood. A brief description of the main approaches to pharmacoprevention and pharmacocorrection of hypertension is given from the position of exposure effects on eGC, which currently has more a fundamental than practical orientation. This opens up great opportunities for clinical studies of eGC dysfunction for the prevention and treatment of hypertension and justifies a new direction in the clinical pharmacology of antihypertensive drugs.

Abstract 126: Antigen Presenting Cell Isolevuglandins: A Potential Diagnostic Tool For Salt Sensitivity Of Blood Pressure In Humans

Salt sensitivity of blood pressure is an independent cardiovascular risk factor as powerful as hypertension, yet it goes untreated due to the lack of a feasible diagnostic tool. We previously found that sodium enters antigen-presenting cells (APCs) via ENaC, leading to the formation of isolevuglandins (IsoLGs). IsoLGs are highly reactive oxidative products of fatty acids and act as neoantigens to trigger inflammation in hypertension. We found that activation of APCs via IsoLG is highly variable in humans. Thus, we hypothesized that this variability in IsoLG-mediated APC activation contributes to the variability observed in human salt sensitivity of blood pressure and that IsoLGs can be used as a diagnostic tool. We measured systolic blood pressure (SBP) and IsoLG-containing APCs (dendritic cells [DC], classical, intermediate and non-classical monocytes) by flow cytometry in 14 hypertensive subjects who were off therapy for 2 weeks, before (B) and after in-patient 24 hr salt loading (HI, 460 mmol Na + ) and salt depletion (LO, 10 mmol Na + and furosemide 40 mg x 3). Salt sensitivity was assessed by ΔSBP (LO minus HI). Median age was 49, with 5 females, median BMI (IQR) of 29.8 (25.2, 39.5) kg/m 2 and screening SBP of 135.1 (130, 144.9) mmHg. The median urinary Na + excretions (IQR) were 169.6 (125, 203.3), 360.9 (324.1, 421.2) and 54.8 (36.8, 76) mmol/24h at baseline, HI and LO days, respectively. Baseline percentages of classical and non-classical monocytes with IsoLGs were positively correlated with ΔSBP (r=0.64, p=0.01 and r=0.71, p<0.01 respectively). Changes in IsoLG-containing DCs and nonclassical monocytes positively correlated with ΔSBP (r=0.60, p=0.03 and r=0.69, p=0.01 respectively). Both the baseline levels and changes in IsoLG containing APCs associated with salt sensitivity. Greater decrease in IsoLG-containing APCs predicted greater decline in blood pressure in response to salt depletion, suggesting that oxidative stress in APCs is implicated in the pathogenesis of salt sensitivity. Our results further suggest that baseline percentage of IsoLG-containing APCs may be the first predictor of salt sensitivity that does not require a protocol of salt loading and depletion. This would enable the diagnosis of salt sensitivity in clinic practice.

Development of β-cyclodextrin crosslinked citric acid encapsulated in polypropylene membrane protected-μ-solid-phase extraction device for enhancing the separation and preconcentration of endocrine disruptor compounds.

Endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs) such as plasticisers, surfactants, pharmaceutical products, personal care products and pesticides are frequently released into the environmental waters. Therefore, a sensitive and environmentally friendly method is entailed to quantify these compounds at their trace level concentrations. This study encapsulated the β-cyclodextrin crosslinked with citric acid in a polypropylene membrane protected-μ-solid phase extraction (BCD-CA μ-SPE) device for preconcentrating the EDCs (triclosan, triclocarban, 2-phenylphenol, 4-tert-octylphenols and bisphenol A) in real water samples before the analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography. FT-IR and TGA results indicated that BCD-CA was successfully synthesised with the formation of ester linkage (1078.33cm-1) and O-H stretching from carboxylic acid (3434.70cm-1) with higher thermal stability as compared with native CD with the remaining weight above 72.1% at 500°C. Several critical parameters such as the sorbent loading, type and amount of salts, extraction time, sample volume, sample pH, type and volume of desorption solvents and desorption time were sequentially optimised and statistically validated. Under the optimum condition, the use of BCD-CA μ-SPE device had manifested good linearity (0.5-500μgL-1) with the determination of the coefficient range of 0.9807-0.9979. The p-values for the F-test and t-test (6.60×10-8 - 1.77×10-5) were lesser than 0.05 and low detection limits ranging from 0.27 to 0.84μgL-1 for all studied EDCs. The developed technique was also successfully applied for EDC analyses in four distinct real water samples, namely, wastewater, river water, tap water and mineral water, with good EDCs recoveries (80.2%-99.9%), low relative standard deviations (0.1%-3.8%, n=3) with enrichment factor ranging from 9 to 82 folds. These results signified the potential of the BCD-CA μ-SPE device as an efficient, sensitive, and environmentally friendly approach for analyzing EDCs.

Critical Salt Loading in Flexible Poly(vinyl alcohol) Sensors Fabricated by an Inkjet Printing and Plasma Reduction Method.

We report a low-temperature inkjet printing and plasma treatment method using silver nitrate ink that allows the fabrication of conductive silver traces on poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) film with good fidelity and without degrading the polymer substrate. In doing so, we also identify a critical salt loading in the film that is necessary to prevent the polymer from reacting with the silver nitrate-based ink, which improves the resolution of the silver trace while simultaneously lowering its sheet resistance. Silver lines printed on PVA film using this method have sheet resistances of around 0.2 Ω/□ under wet/dry and stretched/unstretched conditions, while PVA films without prior treatment double in sheet resistance upon wetting or stretching the substrate. This low resistance of printed lines on salt-treated films can be preserved under multiple bending cycles of 0–90° and stretching cycles of 0–6% strain if the polymer is prestretched prior to inkjet printing.

Prenatal Lipopolysaccharides Exposure Induces Transgenerational Inheritance of Hypertension.

Adverse environmental exposure during the prenatal period can lead to diseases in the offspring, including hypertension. Whether or not the hypertensive phenotype can be transgenerationally transmitted is not known. Pregnant Sprague Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on gestation days 6, 8, 10, and 12 to generate the prenatal LPS exposure model. Blood pressure was monitored by both telemetry and tail-cuff method. RNA sequencing was performed to analyze transcriptome alteration in the kidney of the third generation. Tempol and spironolactone were used to test the potential preventative and therapeutic effect of targeting reactive oxygen species and mineralocorticoid receptor signaling, respectively. Molecular biological experiments were performed to illustrate the mechanism of epigenetic and transcription regulation. Prenatal LPS exposure can impair the ability to excrete a salt load and induce hypertension from the first to the third generations, with the fourth and fifth generations, inducing salt-sensitive hypertension. Compared with control pups, the transcriptome in the kidney of the hypertensive third-generation prenatal LPS-exposed offspring have upregulation of the Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) gene and activation of mineralocorticoid receptor signaling. Furthermore, we found that LPS exposure during pregnancy triggered oxidative stress that upregulated KDM3B (histone lysine demethylase 3B) in the oocytes of first-generation female rats, leading to an inheritable low level of H3K9me2 (histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation), resulting in the transgenerational upregulation of Rac1. Based on these findings, we treated the LPS-exposed pregnant rats with the reactive oxygen species scavenger, tempol, which successfully prevented hypertension in the first-generation offspring and the transgenerational inheritance of hypertension. These findings show that adverse prenatal exposure induces transgenerational hypertension through an epigenetic-regulated mechanism and identify potentially preventive and therapeutic strategies for hypertension.

Corrosion behavior of Graphene reinforced Al-12Si coated 7075 Aluminium alloy

This paper aims at investigating the effect of graphene reinforced Al-Si coatings on the corrosion behavior of AA7075 aluminium alloy. Al - 12Si alloy powder reinforced with 0.5 and 1 wt.% graphene was plasma sprayed on AA7075 substrate. Potentiodynamic polarization measurements were performed using CHI660E-CH electrochemical workstation. It was observed that 0.5 wt.% graphene reinforced Al-Si coating enhanced the corrosion potential from –0.893 to –0.761 V and reduced the corrosion current density from 1.3×10-4 to 9.78×10-6 A/m2. The atmospheric galvanic corrosion was simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics finite element package. It was observed that AA7075 aluminium electrode potential with respect to AISI 4340 steel increased from –0.76 to –0.59 V. The least average current density of 0.95 A/m2 was observed at 95 % relative humidity and 0.0035 kg/m2 salt load density indicating the minimum corrosion rate for 0.5 wt.% graphene reinforced Al-Si coated AA7075 substrate. The simulation also confirmed that 0.5 wt.% graphene reinforcement in Al-Si coatings enhanced the corrosion behavior of AA7075 when compared with 1 wt.% graphene reinforcement.

Association of Antihypertensive Effects of Esaxerenone with the Internal Sodium Balance in Dahl Salt-Sensitive Hypertensive Rats.

Background: The nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor blocker esaxerenone is effective in reducing blood pressure (BP). Objective: In this study, we investigated esaxerenone-driven sodium homeostasis and its association with changes in BP in Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) hypertensive rats. Methods: In the different experimental setups, we evaluated BP by a radiotelemetry system, and sodium homeostasis was determined by an approach of sodium intake (food intake) and excretion (urinary excretion) in DSS rats with a low-salt diet (0.3% NaCl), high-salt diet (HSD, 8% NaCl), HSD plus 0.001% esaxerenone (w/w), and HSD plus 0.05% furosemide. Results: HSD-fed DSS rats showed a dramatic increase in BP with a non-dipper pattern, while esaxerenone treatment, but not furosemide, significantly reduced BP with a dipper pattern. The cumulative sodium excretion in the active period was significantly elevated in esaxerenone- and furosemide-treated rats compared with their HSD-fed counterparts. Sodium content in the skin, skinned carcass, and total body tended to be lower in esaxerenone-treated rats than in their HSD-fed counterparts, while these values were unchanged in furosemide-treated rats. Consistently, sodium balance tended to be reduced in esaxerenone-treated rats during the active period. Histological evaluation showed that esaxerenone, but not furosemide, treatment attenuated glomerulosclerosis, tubulointerstitial fibrosis, and urinary protein excretion induced by high salt loading. Conclusions: Collectively, these findings suggest that an esaxerenone treatment-induced reduction in BP and renoprotection are associated with body sodium homeostasis in salt-loaded DSS rats.

Developing a Decision Support System for Regional Agricultural Nonpoint Salinity Pollution Management: Application to the San Joaquin River, California

Environmental problems and production losses associated with irrigated agriculture, such as salinity, degradation of receiving waters, such as rivers, and deep percolation of saline water to aquifers, highlight water-quality concerns that require a paradigm shift in resource-management policy. New tools are needed to assist environmental managers in developing sustainable solutions to these problems, given the nonpoint source nature of salt loads to surface water and groundwater from irrigated agriculture. Equity issues arise in distributing responsibility and costs to the generators of this source of pollution. This paper describes an alternative approach to salt regulation and control using the concept of “Real-Time Water Quality management”. The approach relies on a continually updateable WARMF (Watershed Analysis Risk Management Framework) forecasting model to provide daily estimates of salt load assimilative capacity in the San Joaquin River and assessments of compliance with salinity concentration objectives at key monitoring sites on the river. The results of the study showed that the policy combination of well-crafted river salinity objectives by the regulator and the application of an easy-to use and maintain decision support tool by stakeholders have succeeded in minimizing water quality (salinity) exceedances over a 20-year study period.

Simulation of water and salt transport in the Kaidu River Irrigation District using the modified SWAT-Salt

Soil salinization is the major factor affecting the sustainable development of agriculture in the Kaidu River Irrigation District (KRID) in Xinjiang Province, China. To better understand water and salt variation regularity in the KRID, this study established a watershed-scale distributed water and salt transport model for the KRID based on the new Soil and Water Assessment Tool with a salinity module (SWAT-Salt). Its point source salt module and irrigation water salt module were modified in the study to obtain more accurate simulation results. Based on evaluation indices, the simulation results of streamflow, salt loading, and crop yield showed that the modified model can more accurately depict water and salt transport processes in the KRID and has good applicability. According to the simulation results, the average annual amount of water and salt entering Bosten Lake through the drainage canal accounted for 15 % and 51 %, reaching 4.29 × 108 m3 and 57.87 × 104 t respectively. The drainage and salt discharge during winter irrigation accounted for 69 % and 74 %, reaching 2.95 × 108 m3 and 42.47 × 104 t, respectively. However, the regions along Bosten Lake had high groundwater and soil salinity, facing a risk of increased salinization and necessitating land or water management to decrease salinization. In conclusion, the modified SWAT-Salt can be applied in agricultural irrigation areas with more diverse irrigation sources and is a useful tool for investigating and assessing watershed-scale salinization, as well as implementing targeted management strategies to reduce salinization.

Salt and surfactant coated filters with antiviral properties and low pressure drop for prospective SARS-CoV2 applications

The COVID-19 pandemic motivated research on antiviral filtration used in personal protective equipment and HVAC systems. In this research, three coating compositions of NaCl, Tween 20 surfactant, and NaCl-Tween 20 were examined on polypropylene spun-bond filters. The pressure drop, coverage, and crystal size of the coating methods and compositions were measured. Also, in vitro plaque assays of the Phi6 Bacteriophage on Pseudomonas syringae as a simulation of an enveloped respiratory virus was performed to investigate the antiviral properties of the coating. NaCl and NaCl-Tween 20 increased the pressure drop in the range of 40–50 Pa for a loading of 5 mg/cm2. Tween 20 has shown an impact on the pressure drop as low as 10 Pa and made the filter surface more hydrophilic which kept the virus droplets on the surface. The NaCl-Tween 20 coated samples could inactivate 108 plaque forming units (PFU) of virus in two hours of incubation. Tween 20 coated filters with loading as low as 0.2 mg/cm2 reduced the activity of 108 PFU of virus from 109 to 102 PFU/mL after 2 h of incubation. NaCl-coated samples with a salt loading of 15 mg/cm2 could not have antiviral properties higher than reducing the viral activity from 109 to 105 PFU/mL in 4 h of incubation.

Italian Society of Cardiology (SIC) Expert consensus document: Post-acute cardiovascular sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection

Although the clinical course of COVID-19 in its acute phase is now delineated, less known is its late phase characterized by a heterogeneous series of sequelae affecting various organs and systems, including the cardiovascular system, which continue after the acute episode or arise after their resolution. This syndrome, now referred with the new acronym "PASC" (post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection) has been formally recognized by various scientific societies and international organizations that have proposed various definitions. The World Health Organization defines PASC, distinguishing it from "ongoing symptomatic COVID-19", as a condition that arises few weeks after infection, persists at least 8 weeks, and cannot be explained by alternative diagnoses.There are multiple mechanisms responsible for PASC: inflammation, immune activation, viral persistence, activation of latent viruses, endothelial dysfunction, impaired response to exercise, and profound cardiac deconditioning following viral infection. The key symptoms of PASC are palpitations, effort dyspnea, chest pain, exercise intolerance, and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome.For PASC treatment, it may be useful to take salt and fluid loading, to reduce symptoms such as tachycardia, palpitations, and/or orthostatic hypotension, or in some subjects the use of drugs such as beta-blockers, non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, ivabradine, and fludrocortisone.Finally, in PASC a gradual resumption of physical activity is recommended, starting with recumbent or semi-recumbent exercise, such as cycling, swimming, or rowing, and then moving on to exercise in an upright position such as running when the ability to stand improves without dyspnea appearance. Exercise duration should also be short initially (5 to 10 min per day), with gradual increases as functional capacity improves.

Sex Differences in Diurnal Sodium Handling During Diet-Induced Obesity in Rats.

Emerging evidence over the past several years suggests that diurnal control of sodium excretion is sex dependent and involves the renal endothelin system. Given recent awareness of disruptions of circadian function in obesity, we determined whether diet-induced obesity impairs renal handling of an acute salt load at different times of day and whether this varies by sex and is associated with renal endothelin dysfunction. Male and female Sprague-Dawley rats were placed on a high-fat diet for 8 weeks before assessing renal sodium handling and blood pressure. Male, but not female, rats on high fat had a significantly reduced natriuretic response to acute NaCl injection at the beginning of their active period that was associated with lower endothelin 1 (ET-1) excretion, lower ET-1 mRNA expression in the cortex and outer medulla as well as lower ETB receptor expression in the outer medulla of the high-fat rats. Obese males also had significantly higher blood pressure (telemetry) that was exacerbated by adding high salt to the diet during the last 2 weeks. While female rats developed hypertension with a high-fat diet, they were not salt sensitive and ET-1 excretion was unchanged. These data identify diet-induced obesity as a sex-specific disruptive factor for maintaining proper sodium handling. Although high-fat diets induce hypertension in both sexes, these data reveal that males are at greater risk of salt-dependent hypertension and further suggest that females have more redundant systems that can be productive against salt-sensitive hypertension in at least some circumstances.

Mitigation of Deicing Salt Loading to Water Resources by Transpiration from Green Infrastructure Vegetation

Green infrastructure (GI) protects aquatic ecosystems from stormwater runoff caused by urban development. Bioretention (BR) is a typical GI system wherein stormwater runoff is routed to a soil basin planted with vegetation and has been shown to reduce deicing salt loads in surface runoff, but the removal mechanism of salt is poorly understood. This study explores the potential of different vegetation types to reduce deicing salt released from a BR by transpiration. Six engineered soil media columns were built in a laboratory greenhouse to simulate a 1012 m2 BR basin along Lorton Road, Fairfax County, VA, USA. The effect of vegetation type (Blue Wild Indigo and Broadleaf Cattail) and influent salt concentration on flow volume and salt mass reduction were quantified for multiple storm events. For all storm events, chloride inflow concentrations, and vegetation types, Cl− load reduction ranged from 26.1% to 33.5%, Na+ load reduction ranged from 38.2% to 47.4%, and volume reductions ranged from 11.4% to 41.9%. Different inflow salt concentrations yielded different removal rates of deicing salt, and for a given column, salt removal decreased over sequential storm events. For each influent salt concentration, columns planted with Broadleaf Cattail (BC) performed better for volume and salt mass reductions than columns planted with Blue Wild Indigo (BWI), which in turn performed better than the controls.

Dietary salt supplementation adversely affects thermal acclimation responses of flight ability in Drosophila melanogaster

Cold acclimation may enhance low temperature flight ability, and salt loading can alter an insects’ cold tolerance by affecting their ability to maintain ion balance in the cold. Presently however, it remains unclear if dietary salt impacts thermal acclimation of flight ability in insects. Here, we examined the effect of a combination of dietary salt loading (either NaCl or KCl) and low temperature exposure on the flight ability of Drosophila melanogaster at low (15 °C) and benign (optimal, 22 °C) temperatures. Additionally, we determined whether dietary salt supplementation translates into increased K+ and Na+ levels in the bodies of D. melanogaster. Lastly, we determined whether salt supplementation impacts body mass and wing morphology, to ascertain whether any changes in flight ability were potentially driven by flight-related morphometric variation. In control flies, we find that cold acclimation enhances low temperature flight ability over non-acclimated flies confirming the beneficial acclimation hypothesis. By contrast, flies supplemented with KCl that were cold acclimated and tested at a cold temperature had the lowest flight ability, suggesting that excess dietary KCl during development negates the beneficial cold acclimation process that would have otherwise taken place. Overall, the NaCl-supplemented flies and the control group had the greatest flight ability, whilst those fed a KCl-supplemented diet had the lowest. Dietary salt supplementation translated into increased Na+ and K+ concentration in the body tissues of flies, confirming that dietary shifts are reflected in changes in body composition and are not simply regulated out of the body by homeostasis over the course of development. Flies fed with a KCl-supplemented diet tended to be larger with larger wings, whilst those reared on the control or NaCl-supplemented diet were smaller with smaller wings. Additionally, the flies with greater flight ability tended to be smaller and have lower wing loading. In conclusion, dietary salts affected wing morphology as well as ion balance, and dietary KCl seemed to have a detrimental effect on cold acclimation responses of flight ability in D. melanogaster.

Performance of Confirmatory Tests for Diagnosing Primary Aldosteronism: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background:Confirmatory tests are recommended for diagnosing primary aldosteronism, but the supporting evidence is unclear.Methods:We searched Medline, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Studies evaluating any guideline-recommended confirmatory test (ie, saline infusion test, salt loading test, fludrocortisone suppression test, and captopril challenge test), compared with a reference standard were included. The Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2 tool was used to assess the risk of bias. Meta-analyses were conducted using hierarchical summary receiver operating characteristic models.Results:Fifty-five studies were included, comprising 26 studies (3654 participants) for the recumbent saline infusion test, 4 studies (633 participants) for the seated saline infusion test, 2 studies (99 participants) for the salt loading test, 7 studies (386 participants) for the fludrocortisone suppression test, and 25 studies (2585 participants) for the captopril challenge test. Risk of bias was high, affecting more than half of studies, and across all domains. Studies with case-control sampling overestimated accuracy by 7-fold (relative diagnostic odds ratio, 7.26 [95% CI, 2.46–21.43]) and partial verification or use of inconsistent reference standards overestimated accuracy by 5-fold (5.12 [95% CI, 1.48–17.77]). There were large variations in how confirmatory tests were conducted, interpreted, and verified. Under most scenarios, confirmatory testing resulted in an excess of missed cases. The certainty of evidence underlying each test (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations) was very low.Conclusions:Recommendations for confirmatory testing in patients with abnormal screening tests and high probability features of primary aldosteronism are based on very low-quality evidence and their routine use should be reconsidered.

7-DAYS HIGH SALT DIET AFFECTS THE PRODUCTION OF PRO- AND ANTI-INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES IN YOUNG HEALTHY INDIVIDUALS

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the earliest immunomodulatory effects of NaCl during pre-hypertensive phase of acute salt loading in humans. Thus we have investigated serum levels of systemic pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in relation to peripheral Th17 and regulatory T cell abundance following 7-day high-salt (HS) loading in young salt-resistant healthy individuals. Design and method: 30 young healthy individuals adhered to a 7-day low-salt (LS) diet (3.5 g salt/day) followed by a 7-day high-salt (HS) diet (~14.7 g salt/day) protocol. Serum pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (INF-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-9, IL-17A, IL-23, IL-10, IL-21, IL-22, TGF-beta1), complement component C3a, as well as frequencies of peripheral blood Th17 and regulatory T cells (Treg), Th17/Treg ratio and the level of enzymes involved in their activation and differentiation (SGK1 and p38/MAP kinase) were measured before and after 7-day HS diet protocol. Results: Short-term HS diet significantly increased serum level of pro-inflammatory cytokines INF-gamma, TNF-alpha, IL-9 and IL-17A level, but also serum concentration of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and TGF-beta1. In addition, serum INF-gamma and IL-9 levels positively correlated to 24-h urine natriuresis. Relative amount of total and phosphorylated p38/MA kinase remained unchanged, while relative amount of total SGK1 significantly increased following 7-day HS diet compared to LS values. Conclusions: Result of the present study provided evidence of acute salt-loading induced changes in the immune status of young healthy individuals. The increase in relative amount of total SGK1 in peripheral mononuclear cells suggests lymphocyte (re)activation in response to hyperosmotic stress resulting in enhanced production of proinflammatory (IL-17, INF-gamma), but also anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and TGF-beta1). Still, which effect is prevailing remains elusive and warrants further studies.

Customizing high-performance molten salt biochar from wood waste for CO2/N2 separation

Engineered biochar derived from wood waste pyrolysis in molten salts were developed for effective CO2/N2 separation. The production conditions were customized to obtain the biochar with high CO2 capture capacity and CO2/N2 selectivity by tuning the type of molten salts (MgCl2-KCl, ZnCl2-KCl, ZnCl2-NaCl-KCl, and K2CO3-Na2CO3-Li2CO3), salt/feedstock ratios (1:1 and 3:1) and pyrolysis temperatures (600 and 800 °C). High temperature (800 °C) and moderate salt loading (salt/feedstock ratio of 1:1) benefited the CO2 adsorption by providing an increased surface area and highly dispersed metal species as adsorption sites. PSL-3-800 and PSL-3-600 (K2CO3-Na2CO3-Li2CO3 biochar) showed the highest CO2 capacity (4.5 mmol g−1, 0 °C, 100 kPa) and the highest CO2/N2 selectivity (28.5), respectively, among the engineered biochar developed in this study. In addition, ZP-3-600 showed the highest selection parameter (S) in both PSA and VSA processes, indicating the promising CO2 capture performance under PSA/VSA conditions. A high recovery rate (89%) of molten salts was achieved. These results suggest a new pathway for upcycling biowaste as eco-friendly and effective adsorbents for gas adsorption and separation.