Salivary IgA Responses Research Articles

Collectivism/individualism and its relationship to behavioral and physiological immunity

The interaction between the behavioral and physiological immune systems provides fertile ground for research. Here, we examine the interactions between fear of disease, collectivism/individualism, disgust, visual perception and salivary IgA. First, we parsed collectivism/individualism into ancestry and psychological processes and examined their relationships to fear of disease. Both ancestral and psychological collectivists scored higher on a test of hypochondria than individualists. Additionally, in two studies we exposed participants to slides of diseased, injured or healthy individuals. Diseased and injured stimuli were rated as equally disgusting, while diseased stimuli were rated as more disgusting than healthy stimuli. We measured salivary IgA in participants before and after they viewed the stimuli. Participants provided information on their ancestral collectivism or individualism. Salivary IgA levels increased after participants viewed images of diseased or injured individuals. Participants with collectivist ancestry tended to react to the diseased and injured images with an increase in IgA, while levels of IgA remained the same or decreased in individualists in one study but we failed to replicate the effect in the second study. An increased salivary IgA response to potentially diseased individuals is adaptive, because salivary IgA plays an important role in protecting individuals from contracting an infection. The response may be related to increased preoccupation with disease states.

Acute and chronic effect of interval and continues resistance training on salivary IgA and cortisol levels in active young women

The purpose of this study was to investigate the Acute and chronic effect of interval and continues resistance training on salivary IgA and Cortisol in active young women. Twenty one healthy female's participated voluntary in this study, Following anthropometric measurements session and determination of 1-RM, all subjects were randomly assigned to interval and continues training groups and a control one (each group n=7). Training groups performed 8 weeks of continues and interval strength training with progressive manners, while the control group did not participate in any exercises. Two acute resistance exercises performed before and after 48h of the last training session, salivary samples were taken before, immediately and after 1h recovery in acute sessions for training groups, but for control group only resting salivary samples before and after training periods were taken. Repeated measure ANOVA with between groups factors have been used for comparing training groups. If significant difference were found, Bonforoni post hoc test were used. Total body mass and percentage of body fat were not significantly changed either in control or training groups after training periods. Resting s-IgA training groups were increased significantly in comparison with control group (P=0.034), but cortisol had no changes. Also Interval and continues strength training to have no-significant effects upon the salivary IgA and cortisol acute responses. The data from the present study suggested that s-IgA and cortisol responses to low intensity progressive interval and continues resistance training had no different in acute responses to strength exercise, and different protocol with high intensity and volumes may be needed for making considerable differences in sIgA and cortisol levels.

Salivary IgA response to probiotic bacteria and mutans streptococci after the use of chewing gum containingLactobacillus reuteri

We investigated whether ingestion of probiotic bacteria could influence salivary IgA levels, specific anti-mutans streptococci IgA levels and specific antibodies towards the ingested probiotic bacterium. The study was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, where the test group (n=11) received twice daily chewing of gum containing Lactobacillus reuteri (2×10(8) CFU per dose) and the control group (n=12) received placebo. Resting saliva was collected before and after 12weeks of treatment and 4weeks after end of treatment. Total salivary IgA concentrations were measured by ELISA. Specific IgA reactivity was determined using a whole-cell ELISA. Results were expressed as % IgA per protein in saliva. The level of total IgA% per protein increased significantly between pretreatment levels (13.5%) and follow-up treatment levels (14.4%) within the test group only (P<0.05). No changes were seen in the control group during the trial. The level of probiotic-reactive antibodies decreased significantly between pre- and post-treatment samples (from 12.2% to 9.0%, P<0.05) in the test group. Similarly, the level of specific mutans streptococci antibodies decreased significantly between pre- and post-treatment samples (P<0.05) in the test group only (for Streptococcus mutans from 20.1% to 15.0%; for Streptococcus sobrinus from 7.4% to 5.3%). Ingestion of probiotic bacteria might influence the adaptive immune response of the host.

Immune selection, senescence and adjuvant

The series of mini-reviews in this issue highlight the progress and open questions in three important areas in immunology, namely impaired central tolerance, senescence of innate cells and the magic adjuvant effect by recombinant flagellin on mucosal vaccines. Self-nonself discrimination is the central mission of immune system. The thymus is endowed with the unique ability to generate adaptive T cells which are immune competent against nonself while remain inert to self, the latter termed central tolerance. Impaired central tolerance frequently leads to autoimmunity. Negative selection and generation of natural regulatory T cell (nTreg) are two major mechanisms for thymus to establish central tolerance, where medullary thymic epithelial cells (mTECs) play critical roles for both negative selection and nTreg generation. Shi and Zhu [1] summarize and discuss current understanding and open questions about how mTECs develop and exert the critical function. Better understanding of mTECs will contribute to the better intervention of autoimmune diseases and immune reconstitution during aging or after infection, chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Pathogens invasion remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the aged individuals. This is in part a consequence of immunosenescence, the deterioration of the immune response associated with aging. It is used to believe that immunosenescence mainly affects the adaptive immune system. However, recent studies have shown that the function of the diverse cells of the innate immune system is also affected with aging. Ma and Fang [2] compare the difference between ectromelia virus (ECTV) infection and West Nile virus (WNV) infection in aged mice models. Defects in T cells play a key role in age-related vulnerability to WNV infection, while defective natural killer cell (NK) responses following ECTV infection result in high mortality rate in aged mice. Poor innate immune responses are likely to play an important role in some age-related viral diseases. Dysfunctions of NK cells, a main effector cell type in innate immunity, clearly have an impact in the host immune defenses to viral infections in the aged individuals. Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) infection leads to dental caries, one of the most common chronic diseases globally. Numerous vaccine strategies have failed because of adversity to induce and maintain protective seroconversion in oral fluids. Yan [3] reviews strategies to boost the salivary IgA response, and development of a nasal-spray anti-caries mucosal vaccine. He also discusses mucosal adjuvants for achieving protective immunity at oral mucosal membranes and summarizes the progress in recombinant flagellin-based anti-caries vaccine study in his own laboratory. Promising prospects are outlined for development of a nasal-spray or nasal-drop anti-caries vaccine and some other novel mucosal vaccines in children.

Salivary IgA response to astaxanthin supplementation in young soccer players

Salivary IgA response to astaxanthin supplementation in young soccer players

Effects of marching band training program on salivary IgA responses following 30 min of performance

Effects of marching band training program on salivary IgA responses following 30 min of performance

Flagellin-PAc Fusion Protein is a High-efficacy Anti-caries Mucosal Vaccine

We previously demonstrated that an anti-caries DNA vaccine intranasally administered with recombinant flagellin protein as a mucosal adjuvant enhanced salivary IgA response and conferred better protection against caries. However, the relatively weak immunogenicity of DNA vaccines and the necessity for a large quantity of antigens remain significant challenges. Here, we fused the flagellin derived from E. coli (KF) and target antigen PAc containing the A-P fragment of PAc from S. mutans (rPAc) to produce a single recombinant protein (KF-rPAc). The abilities of KF-rPAc to induce rPAc-specific mucosal and systemic responses and protective efficiency against caries following intranasal immunization were compared with those of rPAc alone or a mixture of rPAc and KF (KF + rPAc) in rats. Results showed that KF-rPAc promoted significantly higher rPAc-specific antibodies in serum as well as in saliva than did an equivalent dose of rPAc alone or a mixture of KF + rPAc. Intranasal immunization of 8.5 µg KF-rPAc could achieve 64.2% reduction of dental caries in rats. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that flagellin and PAc fusion strategy is promising for anti-caries vaccine development, and KF-rPAc could be used as an anti-caries mucosal vaccine.

Saliva and sera IgA and IgG in Egyptian Giardia-infected children

Giardiasis is a gastrointestinal infection of wide distribution that is more prevalent in childhood. Easy and rapid diagnosis of giardiasis is essential for reduction of this infection. This cross-sectional study included 62 children in which collection of saliva, stool and serum samples was performed. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique was evaluated to detect IgA and IgG responses in both saliva and serum samples. Twenty-two children were positive for Giardia duodenalis infection by direct examination of faecal specimens, 20 non-infected and 20 infected with other parasites. Salivary and serum IgA and IgG responses against G. duodenalis infection were significantly higher in Giardia parasitized than non-Giardia parasitized children (p < 0.001). This concludes that specific salivary IgA may serve as a diagnostic tool and specific salivary IgG as a screening tool in monitoring the exposure of various populations to Giardia duodenalis. The advantage of salivary assays over serum immunoglobulin assay is being easy and non-invasive in sampling technique which is important especially for young children.

Salivary IgA antibody responses to Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus mutans in preterm and fullterm newborn children

ObjectivesThe intensities and specificities of salivary IgA antibody responses to antigens of Streptococcus mutans, the main pathogen of dental caries, may influence colonization by these organisms during the first 1.5 year of life. Thus, the ontogeny of salivary IgA responses to oral colonizers continues to warrant investigation, especially with regard to the influence of birth conditions, e.g. prematurity, on the ability of children to efficiently respond to oral microorganisms. In this study, we characterised the salivary antibody responses to two bacterial species which are prototypes of pioneer and pathogenic microorganisms of the oral cavity (Streptococcus mitis and Streptococcus mutans, respectively) in fullterm (FT) and preterm (PT) newborn children. MethodsSalivas from 123 infants (70 FT and 53 PT) were collected during the first 10h after birth and levels of IgA and IgM antibodies and the presence of S. mutans and S. mitis were analysed respectively by ELISA and by chequerboard DNA–DNA hybridization. Two subgroups of 24 FT and 24 PT children were compared with respect to patterns of antibody specificities against S. mutans and S. mitis antigens, using Western blot assays. Cross-adsorption of 10 infant's saliva was tested to S. mitis, S. mutans and Enterococcus faecalis antigens. ResultsSalivary levels of IgA at birth were 2.5-fold higher in FT than in PT children (Mann–Whitney; P<0.05). Salivary IgA antibodies reactive with several antigens of S. mitis and S. mutans were detected at birth in children with undetectable levels of those bacteria. Adsorption of infant saliva with cells of S. mutans produced a reduction of antibodies recognizing S. mitis antigens in half of the neonates. The diversity and intensity of IgA responses were lower in PT compared to FT children, although those differences were not significant. ConclusionThese data provide evidence that children have salivary IgA antibodies shortly after birth, which might influence the establishment of the oral microbiota, and that the levels of salivary antibody might be related to prematurity.

Sublingual immunization with an engineered Bacillus subtilis strain expressing tetanus toxin fragment C induces systemic and mucosal immune responses in piglets

Sublingual (SL) and intranasal (IN) administration of a Bacillus subtilis-based tetanus vaccine was tested in piglets, which more closely mimic the human immune system than mice. Piglets were immunized by the SL, IN or oral routes with vaccine expressing tetanus toxin fragment C, or commercial tetanus vaccine given by intramuscular injection as a control. Tetanus toxoid specific ELISA and passive neutralization tests were used to measure IgG and IgA levels in serum and mucosal secretions, and assess protective serum antibodies, respectively. The nature of the immune response was explored by MHC Class II, TGF-β1 expression, and ELISA assays for multiple cytokines. SL or IN immunization of piglets induced neutralizing tetanus toxoid specific serum antibody and local salivary and vaginal IgA responses. Standard tetanus vaccine resulted in systemic antibodies, whereas oral administration of the Bacillus-based vaccine was ineffective. Further analyses indicated a balanced Th1/Th2 response to SL or IN immunization. ConclusionThis study demonstrates for the first time that SL or IN administration is effective for inducing both systemic and mucosal responses in a piglet model, indicating that SL or IN delivery of a B. subtilis-based tetanus vaccine can be a simple, non-invasive, low cost strategy to induce immunity to tetanus.

Cytokine profiles and salivary IgA and hormonal responses to an acute bout of strenuous endurance exercise

Introduction: Strenuous endurance exercise suppresses some immune variables such as T helper (Th) cell activities during the post-exercise recovery period. Changes in the Th1/Th2 response to exercise have been reported previously; however, earlier reports have not investigated cytokine production by phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-stimulated Th cells following strenuous endurance exercise. Changes in plasma cortisol and salivary IgA concentrations have been linked to the exercise-induced immunosuppression explained by the ‘open window’ theory.

Effects of Carbohydrate Beverage Ingestion on the Salivary IgA Response to Intermittent Exercise in the Heat

The purpose of this study was to establish if provision of CHO altered the mucosal immune and salivary cortisol responses to intermittent exercise in the heat. In a double-blind design, 10 males undertook soccer-specific intermittent exercise on a motorized treadmill on 2 occasions, each over 90 min and separated by 1 week. During CHO and placebo trials, subjects were given either a carbohydrate solution (3 ml · kg (-1) body weight) or placebo drink, 5 min before the commencement of exercise, at 15, 30 min, at half time, 60 and 75 min into exercise. Salivary flow rate increased throughout the placebo trial and decreased throughout the CHO treatment; the difference between conditions neared statistical significance (P=0.055). Neither s-IgA concentration nor s-IgA to osmolality ratio was affected by 2 conditions or differed at any time-point post-exercise (P>0.05). The s-IgA secretion rate increased, s-IgA to protein ratio decreased post-exercise and salivary cortisol decreased 24 h post-exercise (P<0.05) compared to pre-exercise. Carbohydrate supplementation whilst exercising in the heat, does not influence rating of perceived exertion, thermal sensation, salivary flow rate, s-IgA concentration, s-IgA secretion rate, s-IgA to osmolality ratio or s-IgA to protein ratio and salivary cortisol but heart rate was increased.

Salivary iga response during one week of adventure sports activities with altitude exposure

Salivary IgA has been used as a marker for the mucosal immune system status and may decrease after periods of intense exercise. The aim of this research was to investigate the changes in salivary IgA levels after a week at 2140m above sea level and the salivary IgA (sIgA) response to three different exercise activities at altitude, and to evaluate the recovery time needed to restore the baseline sIgA concentration and secretion rate levels. Eighteen participants (12 male and 6 female, aged between 20 and 38 years old) were enrolled in the study. Saliva samples were collected at wake up, 2h and 24h after the sports activities. Nine collection points were analyzed for saliva flow rate, sIgA concentration and secretion rate. Heart rate data was collected using heart rate monitors. The adventure sports activities consisted of a mountain trekking activity, fulfilled on the 1st day with a positive altitude difference of 339m above sea level (ASL) a mountain climbing activity, fulfilled on the 3rd day with a positive altitude difference of 1340m ASL and a canyoning activity, fulfilled on the 5th day with a positive altitude difference of 230m ASL. No altitude effects were seen on salivary IgA values after 5 nights at 2140m ASL. Salivary IgA concentration and secretion rates showed statistically significant decreases 2h after the mountain trekking activity, 2h after the mountain climb event (Aneto, 3404m) and 2h after the canyoning descent. 24h hours after these activities sIgA values had not yet recovered, and were still significantly different from the baseline values.

Characterization of Gingival Th1, Th2 and Th17 Cells in Murine Periodontitis Model

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of the immune system influencing oral bone metabolism remain to be elucidated. In this study, we characterize the mucosal cytokine production by CD4+ T cells in the inflamed gingiva of mice infected with Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis). A murine periodontal disease model with alveolar bone loss showed significant levels of FimA-specific salivary secretory IgA and plasma IgG Ab responses. Further, IL-6 and TNF-α production was elevated when compared with sham-infected mice. The frequencies of Th1 (IFN-γ), Th2 (IL-4) and Th17 (IL-17) producing CD4+ T cells were also increased in P. gingivalis infected mice. Among these cytokines, a significantly higher frequency of IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells was noted. The kinetics of intracellular cytokine analyses revealed a significantly increased frequency of IFN-γ-, IL-4- and IL-17-producing CD4+ T cells one day after infection. Further, the frequency of IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells was maintained throughout the experimental period. Although IL-4 and IL-17 production was intact until 15 days after the infection, the numbers of CD4+ T cells producing these cytokines were reduced thereafter. These results indicate that Th1-type CD4+ T cells play distinct roles in the induction and regulation of periodontal disease when compared with Th2- and Th17-type cytokine-producing CD4+ T cells.

Development of a multiplex microsphere immunoassay for the quantitation of salivary antibody responses to selected waterborne pathogens

Saliva has an important advantage over serum as a medium for antibody detection due to non-invasive sampling, which is critical for community-based epidemiological surveys. The development of a Luminex multiplex immunoassay for measurement of salivary IgG and IgA responses to potentially waterborne pathogens, Helicobacter pylori, Toxoplasma gondii, Cryptosporidium, and four noroviruses, involved selection of antigens and optimization of antigen coupling to Luminex microspheres. Coupling confirmation was conducted using antigen specific antibody or control sera at serial dilutions. Dose–response curves corresponding to different coupling conditions were compared using statistical tests. Control proteins in the specific antibody assay and a separate duplex assay for total immunoglobulins G and A were employed to assess antibody cross-reactivity and variability in saliva composition. 200 saliva samples prospectively collected from 20 adult volunteers and 10 paired sera from a subset of these volunteers were used to test this method. For chronic infections, H. pylori and T. gondii, individuals who tested IgG seropositive using commercial diagnostic ELISA also had the strongest salivary antibody responses in salivary antibody tests. A steep increase in anti-norovirus salivary antibody response (immunoconversion) was observed after an episode of acute diarrhea and vomiting in a volunteer. The Luminex assay also detected seroconversions to Cryptosporidium using control sera from infected children. Ongoing efforts involve further verification of salivary antibody tests and their application in larger pilot community studies.

Salivary IgA responses in newborn against pathogen of oral cavity. Influence of prematurity in this response

Salivary IgA responses in newborn against pathogen of oral cavity. Influence of prematurity in this response

Salivary Cortisol and Immunoglobulin A Responses During Golf Competition vs. Practice in Elite Male and Female Junior Golfers

The purpose of this study was to investigate the stress and immune responses to a competition in elite male and female junior golfers. Six male (16.2 +/- 1.4 years) and 6 female junior golfers (16.4 +/- 1.1 years) completed salivary collections during competition vs. practice rounds on 2 different days. Salivary samples were collected on 4 occasions (rest, before, during, and after rounds). Salivary cortisol and IgA were measured for stress and immune responses, respectively. Our results were as follows: (a) Salivary cortisol level was higher in competition than practice in male golfers (p = 0.009) but it was similar in female golfers. In male golfers, salivary cortisol level was higher before a round than at rest (p = 0.029), but it was higher after rounds than at rest (p = 0.016) in female golfers. (b) Salivary IgA was elevated during competition than during practice rounds in male golfers (p = 0.019), but not in females (p = 0.152). Salivary IgA was not significantly different among salivary collection times although it tended to be elevated during and after rounds for both male and female golfers. In conclusion, salivary cortisol and IgA were elevated during golf competition compared with practice in male junior golfers, but they were not in female golfers. Furthermore, salivary cortisol was higher before a round than rest in men, but it was higher after a round than rest in women. Both male and female junior golfers, however, showed similar salivary IgA responses during golf. Our results suggest that sex might play a role on stress and immune responses during a game of golf in elite junior golfers.

Intraperitoneal immunization of human subjects with tetanus toxoid induces specific antibody-secreting cells in the peritoneal cavity and in the circulation, but fails to elicit a secretory IgA response.

Five patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) were immunized intraperitoneally with tetanus toxoid (TT) through an indwelling catheter. Four control patients on CAPD received the same dose of TT intramuscularly. Before immunization, virtually no anti-TT antibody-secreting cells (AbSC) were detected by the enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay in peripheral blood or peritoneal fluid from patients of either group. One to 2 weeks after immunization, high frequencies of TT-specific AbSC were detected in the circulation and peritoneal cavity. More than 80% of those cells were of the IgG isotype, with IgA accounting for most of the remainder. Patients receiving TT by the i.p. route showed significantly higher frequencies of specific IgG and IgA AbSC in the peritoneal cavity than patients immunized intramuscularly. Frequencies of AbSC in peripheral blood did not significantly differ between the two groups. Immunization with TT by both routes resulted in a significant increase of IgG anti-TT antibodies in serum, saliva and peritoneal fluid. A significant IgA antibody response was seen only in serum and peritoneal effluents. Therefore, i.p. immunization of human subjects with TT elicited both a localized response in the peritoneal cavity as well as a systemic response in serum, but did not induce a salivary IgA response.

Preexisting Poliovirus‐Specific IgA in the Circulation Correlates with Protection against Virus Excretion in the Elderly

Epidemiological studies have indicated that at least 10% of the Dutch elderly do not have poliovirus serotype-specific neutralizing antibody titers and might be at risk for poliovirus infection. Previously we established that memory immunity does not protect the elderly against poliovirus replication. In this study, we investigated whether preexisting immunoglobulin (Ig) A protects against poliovirus infection. Elderly individuals (n = 383), divided into seronegative and seropositive groups, were challenged with monovalent oral poliovirus vaccine (mOPV), either serotype 1 or serotype 3. After challenge, poliovirus serotype-specific circulating and salivary IgA responses were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and poliovirus excretion in stool was measured. The majority of elderly persons without preexisting IgA excreted poliovirus in the stool. In contrast, most elderly persons seropositive for IgA did not excrete poliovirus. Significant inverse correlations were found between preexisting titers of poliovirus serotype-specific circulating IgA and virus excretion. Challenge with mOPV (re)induced IgA responses; low salivary IgA responses correlated with that in the circulation but not with virus excretion. These results indicate that preexisting IgA values in the circulation correlate with protection against poliovirus infection in the elderly. This further implies that persons without preexisting IgA might contribute to the circulation of poliovirus and therefore may threaten its eradication.

Age-dependent deficiency in saliva and salivary antibodies secretion in Down's syndrome

Objective Down's syndrome (DS) individuals suffer from an increased susceptibility to infections. Here, we assessed age-related changes in the salivary-specific humoral immunity of DS subjects. Design Parotid and whole saliva were collected from a young group of DS (YDS, n = 30, 23.3 ± 4 years), an older group of DS individuals (ODS, n = 10, 51.9 ± 8 years) and compared to two age-matched groups of healthy volunteers—a young group (YC, n = 29, 22.8 ± 5 years) and an older group (OC, n = 10, 48.4 ± 9 years). The levels of total IgA, and specific antibodies to three common oral pathogens ( Porphyromonas gingivalis, Actinobacillus ( Aggregatibacter) actinomycetemcomitans and Streptococcus mutans) were analysed. Results The limited increases in IgA concentrations could not compensate the dramatic reduction in the salivary flow rate observed in DS individuals. Therefore, the median secretion rates of the specific antibodies in whole and parotid saliva were 70–77% and 34–60% (respectively) lower in YDS individuals as compared to YC and farther 77–100% and 75–88% (respectively) lower in ODS compared to YDS. In contrast, the antibody secretion rates were similar for parotid saliva, or even increased for whole saliva of OC, compared with YC. Consequently, a dramatic cumulative extreme reduction (>92%) in the bacterial specific salivary antibodies differentiated the adult DS individuals from to their age-matched controls. Conclusions Our results indicate a severe immunodeficiency in the secretion rate of the specific salivary IgA response of in DS individuals which intensifies with age.