Sal Seeds Research Articles

Selection of efficient ectomycorrhizal fungi for improved growth, biomass and nutrient uptake of Shorea robusta seedlings

Shorea robusta Gaertn. (sal) forests are rapidly decreasing across India owing to the low survival rate and establishment of their seedlings. Because of this, the present study identified ectomycorrhizal (ECM) associates of S. robusta and the role they play in increasing the growth and efficiency of nutrient uptake by the mycorrhizal roots of this plant. During the field survey we identified, collected, cultured and systematically investigated three dominant ECM associates of S. robusta: Russula kanadii Dutta & Acharya, R. cyanoxantha (Schaeff.) Fr. and Lactarius shiwalikensis Kumar and Atri, organically connected to the host plant roots. Pure cultures of each of these mycorrhizal fungal associates were grown using tissue culture techniques. We prepared spawn via purified mycelium using boiled wheat grains for mass inoculation and used the prepared inoculums for inoculating the germinating sal seeds for establishing the mycorrhizal association. To evaluate the effects of mycorrhizal colonization on various growth parameters, we observed the inoculated and control plants every three months for one year. The growth parameters in the sal seedlings grown in ECM‐inoculated soil exhibited significantly higher values over the un‐inoculated control soil owing to the increased uptake of both macro‐ and micronutrients. The overall results indicate that S. robusta seedlings inoculated with ECM fungal partners exhibited better establishment and enhanced growth and development, essential for the regeneration and survival of this plant. This technique will accelerate and assure successful reforestation programs and contribute toward appropriate functioning of sal forest ecosystems.

Biodiesel Production from Sal Oil: A Mamdani-Type Fuzzy Inference System Using the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox Graphical User Interface (Gui) Tools

This paper describes the performance evaluation of fuzzy logic controller in Biodiesel Production system using MATLAB Simulink and MATLAB Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Biodiesel (fatty acid alkyl esters) is derived from triglycerides by transesterification with alcohol, has attracted considerable attention during the past decade as a renewable, biodegradable, and nontoxic fuel. Vegetable oils are produced from numerous oil seed crops and many of them are used for edible purpose. The oil obtained from Sal seeds (Shorea Robusta) even though used by local tribes in Indian forests for edible purpose, it is still classified as non-edible oil. Sal tree is abundantly available in forests of Indian subcontinent and this wood is used in building construction and manufacture of furniture because of its characteristic hardness. In this paper maximum output yield-Biodiesel Production has been done (SOME-Sal Oil Methyl Esters) by optimizing reaction parametersin relation to the Excess Methanol Quantity (EMQ, 150%),Reaction Temperature (RT, 65°C), Catalyst Quantity (CQ, NaOH - 0.25 W%) by Max-Min (MAMDANI) Method Fuzzy Inference System using the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox Graphical User Interface (GUI) Tools of MATLAB (Intelligent System).

Shorea robusta Gaertn.f : A review on its importance, entomological problems and management in the Indian sub-continent

Shorea robusta is an ecologically and economically important and dominant timber species in tropical forests of Indian sub-continent. Apart from strong, elastic and heavy heartwood timber, the coppice shoots of Sal are used for making household or agricultural implements and is a good source of firewood. Leaves are lopped for fodder and the flavonoids present in the leaves can be used as an active ingredient of several medicines. Additionally, the processed Sal seeds have a leading role in food and cosmetic sectors. The seed oil has become a significant foreign exchange earner for India. In India, Sal is one of the most affected species in terms of insect attack. Subsequently, insect damages, in varying degrees from seeds to finished products are the major reasons for decline in population of Sal forests. A total of 340 insect species belonging to 56 families under eight orders have been recorded that are associated with Sal in the country. About 145 insect species has been reported feeding on the green standing Sal trees which may be grouped as seed insects, nursery pests, defoliators, stem and root borers and sap suckers. Pammene theristis , for instance is responsible for heavy infestation of the seedlings and seeds of Sal. Major pest during nursery practice is Holotrichia consanguinea which lays eggs in the soil and grubs feed on the root system of the 2-3 years old seedlings of Sal. The major defoliators belong to the order Lepidoptera comprising of 93 species. Notably, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis , the most serious pest and a single species of heartwood borer of Sal is capable of attacking and killing healthy trees of any age and size. About 90 species of timber borers causes damage to Sal, of which six species feed on rotten logs or stumps. The current communication aims to provide a detailed account on different insect pests infesting Sal in India.

Efficacy of Fumigants for Control of Sal Seed and Seedling Borer <i>Pammene theristis</i> Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Sal ( Shorea robusta Gaertn.) is one of the most important timber species of Indian sub-continent. Along with timber, Sal seeds are of great commercial importance. The quality of seed production and seed viability are affected by insect infestation on tree stands and during storage which causes considerable economic loss. Pammene theristis Meyrick is the most destructive pest, which bores both the seeds and seedlings of Sal. Fumigation is an effective management method of suffocating or poisoning the seed borers within the seed and thus controlling the infestation. A laboratory study was carried out in Insectary, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. The results revealed that the most effective fumigant against the seed borer P. theristis was found to be EDB + CCl 4 at 0.2 ml/kg dose for 48 hours. It was followed by EDB (at 0.2 ml/kg), PDCB (at 0.2 ml/kg) and CS 2 (at 0.2 ml/kg) at 48 hours duration each.

A century old regeneration problem of Shorea robusta Gaertn. F. in south Asia: SWOT analysis (Review)

Shorea robusta (Sal) Gaertn. F. a commercially and ecologically important forestry species of south Asia, is facing serious regeneration problem since last century. The continuously diminishing natural regeneration is associated with numerous abiotic and biotic factors, like edaphic, micro-climatic, physiological, genetic, anthropogenic, pathogens, insect-pests, etc. Following a good seed year and timely commencement of monsoon, Sal seeds germinate readily, and thousands of seedlings cover the forest floor. Subsequently, these get afflicted with die-back syndrome impeding shoot growth. Regular fire incidences during hot and dry season further aggravates the problem. Among biotic factors, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis , Cylindrocladium floridanum and Inonotus shoreae causes severe heartwood decay, blight and dieback leading to mortality. Moreover, over-exploitation, illegal felling, grazing, etc., have severely depleted the Sal forest. This review systematically explores the factors contributing to regeneration problem in S. robusta and opines appropriate silvicultural operations and management strategies for the conservation of Sal forests through SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis. We emphasized on the ecological aspects, soil characteristics, micro-climatic factors and importance of associated species to develop sustainable management regimes. Highlighting all facets of Sal regeneration problem and SWOT assessment, we suggest comprehensive weaknesses and threat perceptions to formulate strategies to seal the gaps.

Sal biodiesel production using Indian abundant forest feedstock

The objectives of present work are exploration and develop an indigenous fuel from abundant forest of India. India has 10 million hectors Sal (Shorea Robusta) forest which produced 180 million kg non-edible seeds annually. Since Sal seeds may be an option to fulfil the biodiesel mission of India due to its low acid value. So in the current research, single stage base catalyst transesterification was employed for biodiesel production. The work was focused on optimization of major characteristics such as cetane number, viscosity, calorific value and cold filter plugging point (CFPP) using response surface methodology (RSM). The significant process parameters of transesterification reaction such as methanol to oil molar ratio (3–15:1), KOH catalyst concentration (2.5–15 g/kg), reaction time (30–120 min) and reaction temperature (50–70 °C) were exploited to optimize the above properties and synchronize with production yield. After the optimization results, confirmation trails has been conducted and yield was achieved 98.94%. At the same time physicochemical properties were obtained such as cetane number 61.91, viscosity 4.97 cSt, calorific value 39.61 MJ/kg and CFPP 0.024 °C. Results were validated through the confirmation trails and all properties of Sal biodiesel are well within ASTM limits. So Sal seed is the needed source of biodiesel in India.

Influence of Moisture Content and Compression Axis on Physico-mechanical Properties of Shorea robusta Seeds

Shorea robusta (Sal) is mainly harvested and processed for its seed oil, which has diverse application in commercial food and non-food based industries. Before extraction of its oil, seeds undergo into various post-harvest unit operations. Physical and mechanical properties play an important role in the handling and other processing activity. In this study influence of moisture content and compression axis of sal seed on physico-mechanical properties were studied and their application are highlighted. The experiments were conducted at five different moisture levels of 6.38, 10.49, 13.63, 17.64, and 21.95% (d.b) at two different orientations. The first orientation is on major axis (LEN) of the seed, and the other orientation is on intermediate or minor axis (WID), which is right angle to the major axis. It was observed that 68% of sal seeds were of medium size group at initial moisture content of 10.49% (d.b). The mean length and width of sal seed was found to be 26.7 mm and 12.8 mm, respectively. It was found that values of hardness, deformation at hardness, deformation at hardness percentage and energy for rupture were higher in minor axis (WID) as compared to the major axis (LEN). The results provide necessary data that may be useful to engineers, scientists, industries in the design of a suitable post-harvest processing machine.

Pyrolysis kinetics of Sal (Shorea robusta) seeds

Thermal kinetics of Sal seeds during pyrolysis process was investigated as feedstocks for chemical, material, and bioenergy industries. The physicochemical properties of the seeds were examined. Results showed that Sal seed can be characterized as high calorific values, low ash, and high volatile content biomass to suit pyrolysis applications. Kinetic analysis for thermal degradation of this biomass was given particular attention. Two major degradation zones were identified with T max at about 321 and 405 °C, and activation energy was evaluated using various methods. Model-free pyrolysis kinetic approach was verified to be appropriate and indicated that unprocessed Sal seed biomass can directly become potential renewable feedstock of energy, chemicals, and biochar.

Fabrication, performance evaluation and optimization of Sal (shorea robusta) seed decorticator

AbstractSal (Shorea robusta) seed is a nontimber forest product, mainly processed for its oil. This oil is used in various food and nonfood industries. Prior to extraction of oil, sal seeds are manually broken to obtain sal kernel. This traditional manual de‐shelling process is very tedious, time consuming and unhygienic. Hence, in this research, a sal seed decorticator was designed, fabricated and its performance was evaluated. The performance parameters of the machine were tested with varying moisture content from 10.49% to 21.95% (d.b) and different concave clearance varying from 10 mm to 19 mm. The decorticating efficiency, machine efficiency, and kernel percentage were found to have a maximum value of 99.15 0.04%, 93.62 0.87%, and 62.71 1.73%, respectively at 13.63% (d.b) moisture content and 13 mm concave clearance. Results were fitted in response surface methodology to optimize the parameters and to find the level of significance between the independent and dependent variables.Practical applicationsA sal seed decorticator was developed based on physical and mechanical properties of sal seed. The developed machine is designed to run by manpower (manually operated) which can be suitable for hilly and forest region. This decorticator can be used to decorticate sal seeds to get sal kernels. At a seed moisture content of 13.63% (d.b.), the decorticator yields 62.71% of kernels (machine efficiency of 93.62%). These kernels are processed for extraction of oil. This machine is very useful for rural people, farmers and small‐scale industries for post‐harvest processing of sal seeds.

Protein metabolism during natural ageing in desiccating recalcitrant seeds of Shorea robusta

Seeds of Shorea robusta (sal) are recalcitrant owing to its high desiccation sensitivity. Germinability in sal seed was lost rapidly from 100 to 0 % within 8 days. Protein oxidation examined separately in axis and cotyledon of ageing sal seeds by monitoring the levels of carbonyls, hydroperoxide, malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal adducts with protein, Amadori and Maillard reaction products. Changes in protease and proteasome activity were also estimated. The levels of all the modified proteins and activities of protease and proteasome were similar in axis and cotyledons. The amounts of carbonyls (5.5 fold in axis and 3.9 fold in cotyledons) and hydroperoxides (13.5 fold in axis and 12 fold in cotyledons) increased significantly as the seeds became non-viable. Similarly, the levels of malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal adducts promoted as the storage period advanced and reached tenfold both in the axis and cotyledons in non-viable seeds. The ageing also promoted levels of reducing sugar along with rapid enhancement in the levels of Amadori and Maillard reaction products, respectively, by 4.4 and 1.8 fold in 5 days sal seeds. Substantial promotion in protease activity both in the axis (sevenfold) and cotyledons (tenfold) of absolutely aged seeds was discernible. The activity of proteasome exhibited steady decline from 0.767 to 0.170 nmol min−1 g−1 DM in axis and 0.20–0.086 nmol min−1 g−1 DM in cotyledons of ageing sal seeds. Changes in the ROS and protein catabolism/oxidation have been discussed to establish loss of germinability in desiccating recalcitrant sal seeds.

Holocene vegetation and climatic variations in Central India: A study based on multiproxy evidences

Palynology, texture, mineralogy, geochemistry, and magnetic susceptibility analysis of a 2m deep sediment core from Padauna Swamp, southeastern Madhya Pradesh infers that between 8600 and 7500calyr BP a warm and relatively less-humid climate prevailed with open tree-savannahs dominated by grasses followed by sedges, Artemisia and members of Chenopodiaceae/Amaranthaceae with scanty trees viz., Schrebera, Aegle marmelos and Sterculia urens. This is well supported by lower organic to carbonate carbon ratio, coarser texture having relatively low CIA and magnetic susceptibility values and presence of some primary minerals. Between 7500 and 6250calyr BP the tree-savannahs were succeeded by open mixed deciduous forests with the invasion of a few more trees viz., Madhuca indica, Holoptelea, Emblica officinalis, Mitragyna parvifolia and members of Anacardiaceae in response to onset of a warm and humid climate. A considerable rise in organic carbon generated from the degradation of plentiful biomass along with increase in clay content with signs of kaolinite and increase in immobile over mobile elements with slightly higher CIA and magnetic susceptibility values also suggest climatic amelioration. The presence of ruderal plants such as Artemisia, Cannabis sativa and Cheno/Am further infers initiation of human activities in the region. Between 6250 and 2800calyr BP, the mixed deciduous forests became more diverse and dense, subduing grasses and other herbaceous elements. Sporadic incursion of Shorea robusta (Sal) in forest floristic was recorded around 5000calyr BP. The overall change in the vegetation mosaic reflects that a warm and more-humid climate prevailed in the region, probably on account of invigoration of southwest monsoon. This observation is further corroborated by other proxy data showing a spurt in organic/inorganic carbon ratio, increase in clay content with matured mineralogy, significantly higher CIA and magnetic susceptibility values. Since 2800calyr BP onwards, the modern Sal dominated deciduous forests were established indicating continuation of warm and more-humid climate including timely arrival of SW monsoon coinciding with the shedding of Sal seeds as they are viable for a very short period.

ROS production and lipid catabolism in desiccating Shorea robusta seeds during aging

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation products appear to correlate strongly with the desiccation induced loss of viability in recalcitrant sal seeds. The 100% germination in fresh sal seeds declined with dehydration under natural storage conditions (26 ± 1 °C, relative humidity 52 ± 2%). Seeds became non-viable within 8 days. Desiccation induced disturbances in the metabolic activity of seeds resulted in generation of enormous amounts of ROS that are responsible for cellular damage and viability loss. Oxidative stress in the dehydrating aging sal seeds was further aggravated by inducing lipid peroxidation as the amounts of free fatty acid, conjugated diene, lipid hydroperoxide and secondary free radicals; malondialdehyde and 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, were also promoted. In addition, significant rise in lipid degrading enzymes; lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) and lipoxygenase (LOX, EC 1.13.11.12) were detected in dehydrating sal seeds. Our results indicated multiple pathways (ROS, lipid peroxidation & lipase and LOX) that operate in the dehydrating recalcitrant sal seeds finally contributing to loss of viability.

Status of Sal (Shorea robusta) seed insect pests in six Sal dominating regions of central India, Madhya Pradesh

The paper reports field status of insect pests damaging Sal seeds in six Sal dominating regions of Madhya Pradesh, recorded during three consecutive seed setting seasons from 2000. Observations with field collected seed samples revealed that three insect pests were infesting Sal seeds, viz., Dichocrocis leptalis Hamp., Pammne theristis Mey. And Sitophilus rugicollis Casey. Their level of incidence based on percentage seeds damaged and population of individual insect species was recorded in all the selected forest areas. The information given on comparative status of pest incidence may be useful for traders and industries involved in extracting oils from the seeds for decision-making.

Changes in total protein and protease activity in dehydrating recalcitrant sal (Shorea robusta) seeds

A rapid loss of viability was recorded in sal seeds when dehydrated below 36.7% moisture content, at ambient conditions. Seed becomes non-viable at 6 days after harvest (dah). Gradual decline in total protein content due to corresponding increase in protease activity preceded loss of viability. Almost 43.7% and 52.6% loss in total protein content was observed on 3 dah in embryonic axis and cotyledon respectively of seeds showing 100% viability. No protease activity was detected in the embryonic axis and cotyledon of freshly harvested viable seeds (0 dah). The protease activity was detected after 12 hrs of storage and increased sharply with peak levels on 6 dah (0.71 ± 0.04 / min/mg protein) and 4 dah (0.16 ± 0.01 / min/mg protein) in embryonic axis and cotyledon respectively. Later on the enzyme activity declined sharply in both the tissues. Enhanced protease activity in embryonic axes and cotyledons has been discussed with corresponding decline in total protein during desiccation induced loss of viability in sal seeds.

Kinetin-Mediated Prolongation of Viability in Recalcitrant Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) Seeds at Low Temperature: Role of Kinetin in Delaying Membrane Deterioration during Desiccation-Induced Injury

The effects of kinetin (6-furfurylaminopurine) on viability during storage of recalcitrant sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.) seeds at low temperature (15°C) were investigated. The freshly mature sal seeds showed an absolute loss of viability within 6–7 dah (days after harvest) when stored at ambient or at 15°C (control). Storage of these seeds at 15°C after kinetin (10 ppm) treatment prolonged the viability period up to 35 days with 20% germination. The kinetin-treated seeds exhibited 100% germination up to 10 days compared with 3 days in controls. Measurements of leachate conductivity, ·O− 2 and lipid peroxidation registered gradual increases from 0 dah onward to 35 dah with significantly low levels compared with controls. On the other hand, an enormous increase in superoxide dismutase activity was discernible for a longer duration (0–35 dah) in kinetin-treated seeds than in control seeds where it remained for 3 dah. The role of kinetin in prolonging seed viability by reducing the loss of leachates, lipid peroxidation, ·O− 2, and enhancing of superoxide dismutase is discussed.

Role of superoxide, lipid peroxidation and superoxide dismutase in membrane perturbation during loss of viability in seeds of Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.

SUMMARYRecalcitrant seeds of Shorea robusta (sal) exhibit 100% viability up to 4 d after maturity. The rapid loss of viability after 4 d is associated with the reduction in moisture content below the lowest safe moisture content (37°o). Seed becomes non‐viable on 8 d. Increased leakage of electrolytes in seeds and lipid peroxidation in embryonic axes was discernible immediately from 0 d. In embryonic axes, very low levels of superoxide (O2−) were maintained up to 4 d and a sharp increase was registered up to 7 d. It is suggested that loss of moisture content in sal seeds below 37% (after 4 d) induces substantial leakage loss probably due to increased lipid peroxidation and O2−) radical formation which are responsible for severe membrane perturbations leading to rapid loss of viability. In embryonic axes SOD activity was recorded only in 100% viable seeds.

Unique Physico‐chemical Properties of Sal (Shorea robusta) Starch

AbstractStarch from sal seeds cake was isolated, bleached and purified. Scanning electron microscopy of the starch showed round to oval shaped granules of the size 3.5 to 12.3 μm. The starch has more nitrogen, phosphorus, lipids, amylose and water binding capacity in comparison to the other starches of forest origin. Despite its low and seemingly restricted swelling, the sal starch is much more soluble at any particular degree of swelling. Paste viscosity curve showed no drop in viscosity after full gelatinisation had taken place, i. e. the paste is stable on continued cooking.

Tannins in sal seed ( Shorea robusta) and sal seed meal limit their utilization as livestock feeds

The availability of sal seed meal (SSM), a by-product of the sal seed fat industry in India, is of the order of 5 million tons per annum. Based on results of numerous feeding trials, recommendations have been made for its extensive utilization as an ingredient of concentrate feeds for cattle, pigs and poultry. The dry matter of sal seeds contains 10–16% fat, 6–9% crude protein and 7–12% tannins. Fat extraction lowers the ether extract content of SSM to 4–8%. The nitrogen-free extract content of the meal, though comparable to that of maize grain, includes a high proportion of tannins and lignin. As a protein-low material it has no value as a protein supplement, and the presence of tannins adversely affects the utilization of other feed proteins. Attempts to remove tannins from SSM are neither effective nor practicable. Critical evaluation of the results of feeding experiments shows that the available energy in the meal, represented by total digestible nutrients, is comparable to that in poor quality roughages. The invariable absence of a negative control in the experimental designs has led to incongruous interpretation of results, which mask the harmful effects of SSM as a feed ingredient. It is concluded that in the interest of welfare of the livestock industry, the use of SSM in livestock rations should be discontinued.