Sajama National Park Research Articles

Encounter with Leopardus jacobita (Carnivora: Felidae) in Sajama National Park, Bolivia that reinforces studies on diet and conservation threats

Leopardus jacobita (Andean mountain cat) is one of the rarest and most understudied felids. Field sightings of this species are few, with most knowledge of this species coming from camera traps and fecal samples. In this observation, we saw how anthropogenic influences, in this case domestic dogs, are a threat to the species persistence, even in protected areas. In addition, we were able to witness the Andean mountain cat successfully kill a Lagidium viscacia (Mountain Viscacha) (Rodentia: Chinchillidae), which is highlighted to be a major prey item for the cat.

Traditional livestock activities modify the spatial behavior of small wildcats in the high Andes

Human activities lead to declines in species’ abundance and diversity, as well as loss of habitat quality from overexploitation. The effects of livestock grazing increase on small felids are poorly understood, primarily due to the low detectability of these species. The grazing of domestic camelids, such as the llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (Vicugna pacos), is the main traditional source of income for the inhabitants of the Andes, where the Andean cat (Leopardus jacobita) and Pampas cat (L. colocolo) are also present. In this study, we employ camera trap data to evaluate the association of llama and alpaca grazing with occupancy by the Andean and Pampas cat in Sajama National Park. In each of 36 sampling stations, we installed a camera trap, a grid of traps for rodents and two habitat transects along a gradient of intensity of livestock grazing. Occupancy models showed that negative effect of camelid abundance was stronger for the Andean cat than the Pampas cat. For both species, occupancy was also associated positively to the abundance of prey, proximity to water bodies, and vegetation. Given that livestock activity is a way of life for human populations in the Andes, we suggest that mechanisms should be implemented to compensate for the negative effects of livestock on Andean and Pampas cat populations.

Effect of traditional livestock grazing on abundance of small mammals and activity of mountain vizcacha in the high central semi-arid Andes

Livestock grazing is common and widespread in the high Andean region; however, few studies have evaluated the effects of traditional camelid grazing (llamas and alpacas) on small and medium sized mammals. We studied small mammals in Sajama National Park in Bolivia. We evaluated the association between livestock abundance and 1) the abundance of small mammals, and 2) small mammal activity patterns. In a grid of 36 sampling stations, small mammals were divided into two study groups, according to their body size and the trophic group. We assessed small mammal abundances with grids of live capture traps and vizcacha with camera traps. We performed GLM and Basic Kernel Density estimation analyses for associations between livestock abundance and abundance of small mammals, and small mammal activity patterns, respectively. The presence of mountain vizcacha and rodents was less likely where livestock abundance was higher. Herbivores and granivores, but not omnivores, were also negatively affected by higher livestock abundance. The diurnal activity patterns of mountain vizcachas declined when livestock abundance was higher. We suggest some alternatives for livestock management plans to minimize the negative effects of traditional livestock on small mammals.

Predation of livestock by puma (Puma concolor) and culpeo fox (Lycalopex culpaeus): numeric and economic perspectives

Predation on livestock by wild carnivores represent large economic losses worldwide. Livestock predation by puma (Puma concolor) and culpeo fox (Lycalopex culpaeus) represents not only a problem for the Sajama National Park (SNP) management in Bolivian highlands, but also for the conservation efforts of these predators. At SNP we quantified: 1) The frequency of attacks by puma and culpeo fox on domestic livestock. 2) The effect of socio-ecological variables on the predation of livestock by these predators. 3) Estimated the losses of livestock due to other causes and compared these with the losses resulting from predation. We expected that the probability of a carnivore attack on a ranch would increase with higher livestock densities, lower abundance of wild prey, good habitat characteristics for carnivores, and low rates of husbandry and would decrease in smaller ranches and/or in areas near human settlements. We monitored predation and other causes of livestock mortality in 33 ranches for one year and estimated biomass of livestock and wild prey and monetary losses. Predators killed 183 livestock (2.3 ± 0.9 % of the animals/ranch) equivalent to $4,215 USD and averaging 21.8 ± 19.6 % of a family’s annual income. Another 354 domestic animals died of causes unrelated to predation (201 adults and 153 yearlings), averaging 4.3 ± 4.5 % of livestock holdings per ranch. The probability of puma attacks increased with ranch size, livestock biomass and distance to the nearest town but decreased with husbandry during the dry season, while their frequency increased with ranch area. The probability of fox attacks decreased with Bofedal area, livestock biomass and better husbandry during the dry season, whereas their frequency increased when wildlife biomass decreased. Although the losses due to predation were low, the impact on the herders’ economy was important. Stock mortality resulting from malnutrition, diseases, and accidents was twice as high as through predation. To reduce losses due to livestock predation and diseases, we advocate managing livestock by reducing group numbers, providing better veterinary assistance, increasing surveillance of herds during grazing events –especially during the rainy season– and through an adequate management of young animals in corrals.

Phylogenetic placement of Leptosphaeria polylepidis, a pathogen of Andean endemic Polylepis tarapacana, and its newly discovered mycoparasite Sajamaea mycophila gen. et sp. nov.

Polylepis tarapacana forms one of the highest-altitude woodlands worldwide. Its populations are experiencing a decline due to unsustainable land-use practices, climate change, and fungal infection. In Sajama National Park in Bolivia, Polylepis tarapacana is affected by a disease caused by the pleosporalean fungus Leptosphaeria polylepidis, recently described in 2005. In this study, the integrative morphological and molecular analyses using sequences from multiple DNA loci showed that it belongs to the genus Paraleptosphaeria (Leptosphaeriaceae, Pleosporales). Accordingly, the appropriate new combination, Paraleptosphaeria polylepidis, is made. Pseudothecia of Pa. polylepidis were found to be overgrown by enigmatic conidiomata that were not reported in the original description of this fungus. Morphological and molecular analyses using sequences from two DNA loci revealed that they belong to an undescribed genus and species in the family Dictyosporiaceae (Pleosporales). The new generic and specific names, Sajamaea and S. mycophila, are introduced for this unusual fungus.

Socio-ecological dimensions of Andean pastoral landscape change: bridging traditional ecological knowledge and satellite image analysis in Sajama National Park, Bolivia

In the Andes, indigenous pastoral communities are confronting new challenges in managing mountain peatland pastures, locally called bofedales. Assessing land cover change using satellite images, vegetation survey, and local knowledge (i.e., traditional ecological knowledge) reveals the multi-faceted socio-ecological dimensions of bofedal change in Sajama National Park (PNS), Bolivia. Here, we present results from focus groups held in 2016 and 2017 to learn about the local knowledge of bofedales in five Aymara communities in PNS. Land cover maps, created from Landsat satellite imagery, provided a baseline reference of the decadal change of bofedales (1986, 1996, 2006, and 2016) and were field verified with vegetation sampling. At the park level, the land cover maps show a reduction of healthy bofedales (i.e., Juncaceae dominated peatland) cover from 33.8 km2 in 1986 to 21.7 km2 in 2016, and an increase in dry mixed grasses (e.g., Poaceae dominated land cover) from 5.1 km2 (1986) to 20.3 km2 (2016). Locals identify climate change, lack of irrigation, difficulty in water access, and loss of communal water management practices as key bofedal management challenges. Local improvement of bofedales was found in one community due to community-based irrigation efforts. Bridging knowledge of mountain land cover change helps to articulate the socio-ecological dimensions that influence local decision-making regarding bofedal management, and consideration of local actions that may be strengthened to support the sustainability of bofedales for local livelihoods in the context of climate change in the Andes.

Assessing the services of high mountain wetlands in tropical Andes: A case study of Caripe wetlands at Bolivian Altiplano

High mountain wetlands in the tropical central Andes are a representative ecosystem critically important for both global biodiversity and local livelihoods of indigenous communities. This study was intended to characterize and highlight the socio-economic importance of high mountain wetlands in relation to the livelihood and indigenous culture of local human settlements. In this study, we focused on wetlands at Caripe in the Altiplano, a community located at the northeast edge of the Sajama National Park in central western Bolivia. We adopted the ecosystem serve framework combined with economic valuation to assess five major wetland services considered either benefiting local households or of global conservation value, including water supply, livestock grazing, recreation, cultural and natural heritage and aesthetics, and biodiversity. We conducted a field survey including household interviews to collect information needed for assessing considered wetland services that characterizes indigenous community residents, their livelihoods in relation to wetlands, local perceptions on wetlands and provided services, and household willingness to pay in labor time for protecting the cultural services of wetlands. The study found that: 1) the community was characterized by relatively young people of poor education, with most raising livestock and living in extreme poverty; 2) most community households valued local wetlands and were concerned about wetland degradation; 3) lack of awareness or knowledge about wetlands ecological complexity in relation to human impact could be the reason for wetland degradation; 4) the services of wetlands were not equally important to the community; 5) local perception and judgment on wetlands status were based much on the availability, stability, and quality of the services they can derive; 6) livestock grazing generated the highest economic benefit estimated at about US$ 323 per year per hectare of wetlands, followed by biodiversity with an economic benefit of US$200 per year per hectare; 7) the economic value of cultural and natural heritage and sense of aesthetics was estimated at US$ 55 per year per hectare; and 8) the services of recreation and water supply had the lowest economic value of about US$17 per year per hectare and US$9 per year per hectare, respectively. This study sheds some light on the importance of high Andean wetlands to indigenous communities in the Altiplano while identifying research needs for the future.

Local Management of Andean Wetlands in Sajama National Park, Bolivia

Abstract Andean wetlands or bofedales are commonly used by indigenous communities for livestock production. Decisions regarding management of bofedales involve the active participation of local people and their social institutions. Consequently, any action addressing emerging challenges must be implemented in coordination and agreement with local actors. This decision process requires an understanding of the local socioeconomic and cultural dynamics, especially those related to land and natural resource management. In many Andean communities, the ayllu is the institution that governs decisions on regional land use. However, in the face of increasing challenges such as climate change and population growth, use of the ayllu has declined in favor of individual decision-making. Here we discuss how the Andean camelid herders of Sajama National Park in highland Bolivia rely on both the ayllu and family-level decision-making to manage their pastoralist landscapes, including their bofedales. Using a rights mappin...

Plant clonal morphologies and spatial patterns as self-organized responses to resource-limited environments

We propose here to interpret and model peculiar plant morphologies (cushions and tussocks) observed in the Andean Altiplano as localized structures. Such structures resulting in a patchy, aperiodic aspect of the vegetation cover are hypothesized to self-organize thanks to the interplay between facilitation and competition processes occurring at the scale of basic plant components biologically referred to as 'ramets'. (Ramets are often of clonal origin.) To verify this interpretation, we applied a simple, fairly generic model (one integro-differential equation) emphasizing via Gaussian kernels non-local facilitative and competitive feedbacks of the vegetation biomass density on its own dynamics. We show that under realistic assumptions and parameter values relating to ramet scale, the model can reproduce some macroscopic features of the observed systems of patches and predict values for the inter-patch distance that match the distances encountered in the reference area (Sajama National Park in Bolivia). Prediction of the model can be confronted in the future with data on vegetation patterns along environmental gradients so as to anticipate the possible effect of global change on those vegetation systems experiencing constraining environmental conditions.

Leaf turnover and herbivory in the tall tussock grass Festuca orthophylla in the Andean Altiplano

Tall grass tussocks dominate the Andean highlands above 3,800 m a.s.l., with often no other life form contributing significantly to standing crop biomass and productivity, thus, representing the dominant source of fodder for camelid grazing. To assess the productivity of these semi-arid tropical rangelands (350 mm of annual rainfall confined to a 4–5 months rainy season) is challenging, given the ‘evergreen’ nature of leaves and the unknown periodicity of leaf growth. The aim of this study was to explore the seasonal course of new foliage formation, foliage duration, and the response of leaf elongation and emergence to simulated llama grazing (clipping). The repeated census of Festuca orthophylla leaves in the Sajama National Park at 4,250 m elevation (Bolivia) provided clear evidence that leaf production is not confined to the rainy season, but also occurs during the dry season. Our data revealed a mean leaf longevity of 141 days for peripheral control tillers (unclipped) and 169 days for central control tillers. Leaves grow slower and reach shorter length during the dry season compared to the rainy season, and peripheral tillers are always shorter but more vigorous than central tillers (shorter intervals between the emergence of two leaves). There was no stimulation of leaf growth in tillers that were clipped (no overcompensation). Overall, this study suggests ca. two-fold replacement of foliage per year. We explain the continued growth in the dry season by, on average, six times greater soil area occupied by roots than by the leaf canopy, and thus, much greater water availability per tussock than meteorological data would suggest. Wide spacing of tussocks and a large root-sphere mitigate the impact of periodic drought on tissue formation, providing year-round forage for llamas.

Grazing and climatic variability in Sajama National Park, Bolivia

Sajama National Park, the first protected area in Bolivia, includes five indigenous communities with a primary production base of pastoralism. The semi-arid region of the Central Andes is one of the most extreme areas of human occupation at 4200 meters altitude and affected by high climatic variability. This paper studies the relations between climate variability, resilience, biodiversity of pastures and pastoral production in Sajama National Park. We present a botanical study of palatable pasture herbs between two years, one humid (2006) and the other dry (2007). Thirty vascular plants were recorded. The number of species and the cover of iro (Festuca ortophylla) peak in areas of intermediate disturbance; areas that are at a medium distance from camelid corrals. On the other hand, the cover of ephemeral plants between tussocks increases in high disturbance areas. This is interpreted as a result of the tradeoff between the damage of grazing and the benefit of the fertilization produced by the herding animals. The local people clearly perceive strong impacts of climate change, combined with changes in management and human pressures. The social dynamics and production management, combined with climate warming, water reduction, and the increasing variability of surface water regimes create potential risks for the local sustainability of pastoralism.

The Sajama National Park in Bolivia

Sajama National Park in Bolivia's Cordillera Occidental is not only the country's oldest national park; it also contains Bolivia's highest mountain, ice-capped Nevado Sajama, at 6542 m. Created in 1939 by presidential decree with the primary objective of protecting native keñua (Polylepis tarapacana) forests, the Sajama National Park, later ratified by national law, had neither formal administration nor park rangers until 1995.Towering over the barren lands of the Altiplano—Bolivia's highland plateau, at an altitude of about 4000 m—Mount Sajama plays a key role in traditional indigenous mythology, as well as in the formation of the present-day identity of local communities. The latter factor is largely due to a new policy and to multiple activities launched by the Bolivian national parks authority (Servicio Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, SERNAP) during the past decade. As an initial result, local perception of Sajama National Park as an “imposition from above” has given way to referring to the park as “our protected area.”

Brachistosternus galianoae (Scorpiones, Bothriuridae), una nueva especie de Bolivia

A new species of Brachistosternus from the Republic of Bolivia is described. This species was collected at the Sajama National Park, at 4500 m above sea level. It is closely related to Brachistosternus (Leptosternus) montanus Roig Alsina, Brachistosternus (Leptosternus) titicaca Ochoa & Acosta, Brachistosternus (Leptosternus) quiscapata Ochoa & Acosta and to Brachistosternus (Leptosternus) intermedius Lönnberg, from which it can be distinguished by the shape of the hemispematophore. In Brachistosternus (Leptosternus) galianoae n. sp. the distal lamina is strongly curved in the middle, and it is narrower and longer than the basal portion; the basal spines on the lobes of the basal portion of the hemispematophore are poorly developed or absent.