Saiga Research Articles

Premiers temps du Magdalénien en Gironde : réévaluation des fouilles Trécolle à Saint-Germain-la-Rivière (France)

The Magdalenian site of Saint-Germain-la-Rivière (Gironde, France) has often figured in debates and discussions about the Late Upper Palaeolithic of Western Europe. Most of the discussions are based on the material excavated by R. Blanchard — in particular the now well-known burial — as well as the more rigorous excavations by G. Trécolle in the slope deposits. After the detailed study of all this material by M. Lenoir, which allowed the material from the slope and terrace deposits to be attributed to the Lower and Middle Magdalenian, many other studies were carried out by various researchers on specific aspects of the collections (lithics, personal ornaments, fauna). It became clear, however, that the stratigraphic framework and chronology of the site needed to be reexamined. In order to understand the rise of the classic Magdalenian in Gironde, members of the Magdatis project reexamined many early Middle Magdalenian sites and collections of that area. The thorough work of Trécolle at Saint-Germain-la-Rivière was pivotal to this reas sessment. Initially, this involved the analysis of his fieldnotes which led to an archaeostratigraphic reattribution of most artefacts into two principal units, with a potentially problematic interface between these. Once these new archaeostratigraphic divisions had been determined, analysis of the artefacts could proceed. The comparison of the lithic and bone/ antler industries with those of other sites has afforded us new insights into the nature of the types of technical and economic behaviour of this initial Magdalenian in Western Europe. In terms of lithic and osseous raw material, we have found a good degree of continuity between the two units. The differing treatment of domestic versus hunting flint tools is also an important aspect to consider in the discussion of the changes that took place in huntergatherer societies at this time. The bone/ antler industry shows some continuity between units (for example the use of the groove and splinter technique), but also some differences (in the upper unit : less diversity in tools ; a higher frequency of decorated objects). The systematization of standardized blade production in the upper unit is accompanied by an increase in size of antler points. The production of different lithic projectile morphotypes (backed microbladelets versus scalene bladelets), in parallel with a change in base types within antler points, in addition to the presence or absence of grooves, demonstrate that changes occurred in the toolkits used. A reassessment of the faunal remains also helped to clarify the practices having occurred in each of the two principal stratigraphic units ; combined with a taphonomic analysis, the specific subsistence practices in each could be identified. Different hunting strategies were noticed regarding saiga antelope (hunting within female groups versus mixed herds) as well as differing carcass treatment (degree of intensity of marrow extraction, carcass processing techniques). Our analysis also revealed that small-game hunting (birds and small mammals) had already been practised in the earliest Magdalenian phases at the site, thus providing a more complete picture of these reindeer and saiga antelope hunters. Taking into account all of these data and practices allows us to be more specific about the type and pace of technical and subsistence changes having occurred during this period. New 14C dates taken directly from bones of identified species or characteristic organic artefacts also aid us in shedding new light on the two main phases of the Magdalenian. The Trécolle excavation and its collections can thus be placed within the overall Saint-Germain-la-Rivière site sequence and compared with other contemporaneous sites in Western Europe which have also benefited from a renewed stratigraphic, archaeological and chronological assessment and framework.

Saiga antelope hunting in Crimea at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition: the site of Buran-Kaya III Layer 4

The Swiderian tradition of the Tanged Point Complex (Late Upper Palaeolithic) is attested in Crimea through a few ill-known sites dated to the Younger Dryas and early Preboreal. Little information on subsistence is available on this period yet; with this article, we present the results of zooarchaeological analyses conducted on the site of Buran-Kaya III Layer 4, in central Crimea. Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) is the dominant species of the assemblage, followed by red fox (Vulpes vulpes), horse (Equus ferus), and hare (Lepus europaeus). Despise the important presence of canid remains, taphonomic observations as well as archaeological context suggest that human is the main accumulator of saiga antelope remains. Hunter–gatherers likely brought the antelope carcasses whole to the site and performed skinning activity, as well as consumption of meat and bone marrow. Seasonality data from juvenile antelope suggest that the animals were acquired in the late summer or Fall. Based on the ethology of modern populations of saiga antelope, we infer that hunter–gatherers took advantage of the particular geographic setting of the Crimean mountains to efficiently exploit this resource. By drawing comparisons with other known sites of this period, we call attention for future research in exploring the seasonality of subsistence in the Crimea at the Pleistocene–Holocene transition.

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Comportements de subsistance au Paléolithique supérieur en Crimée : analyse archéozoologique des couches 6-2, 6-1 et 5-2 de Buran-Kaya III

The rockshelter of Buran-Kaya III (Crimea), found in 1990 by A. Yanevich, presents an exceptional stratigraphic sequence ranging from the Middle Palaeolithic to the Neolithic. The cultural layers yielded abundant assemblages of lithic and bone industries, personal adornments and mobiliary art, several ones made of mammoth ivory. We present here the results of zooarchaeological analyses of the large mammal remains from layers 6-2, 6-1 and 5-2, attributed to Gravettian sensu lato, and their interpretation in terms of subsistence behaviours, by comparing the three assemblages. The faunal composition of the three layers is rather homogeneous. The site settlements seem mainly related to the acquisition and treatment activities of small and middle-sized mammals, especially saiga antelope in summer, and large-sized mammals, in winter in 6-1 and maybe also in 5-2. During Gravettian, Buran-Kaya III was repeatedly used as a butchery or short-termed camp-site, probably in summer for hunts of saiga antelope.

Calving location selection patterns of saiga antelope in Mongolia

AbstractHabitat selection for calving by ungulates is an important behavioral trait because it affects neonate survival. Generally, ungulate calving site selection varies by vulnerability to predators, local topography, habitat quality and level of human disturbance. The Mongolian saiga (Saiga tatarica mongolica) is endemic to Mongolia where a threatened population of ∼7000 exists in the northern Gobi Desert. We analyzed factors that could affect selection of saiga calving locations in the Sharga Nature Reserve, western Mongolia, using data obtained from ground surveys over 4 years between 2008 and 2012. Multiple factors explain calving location selection by saiga antelopes, based on the results of a generalized linear mixed model within a use availability framework. Individual saiga females preferred calving locations that were away from settlements and closer to water sources and avoided steeper slopes in comparison with random locations. These results demonstrate that the choice of calving locations for saiga antelope is driven by both internal and external factors. Understanding which factors influence calving location selection for saiga provides insights to protect important habitats.

Palaeopopulations of Late Pleistocene Top Predators in Europe: Ice Age Spotted Hyenas and Steppe Lions in Battle and Competition about Prey

Late Pleistocene spotted hyenaCrocuta crocuta spelaea(Goldfuss, 1823) and steppe lionPanthera leo spelaea(Goldfuss, 1810) were top predators in Central Europe. The fossil record (2.303 hyena/1.373 lion bones = ratio 3/1) from 106 cave and open air sites demonstrates comparable associations to modern African hyenas/lions resulting in competition about prey and territory. Cannibalism within extinct spotted hyenas is well documented, including two individual skeletons. Those hyenas produced bone accumulations at dens. Feeding specializations on different megamammal groups are demonstrated for Late Pleistocene hyenas whose prey partly overlaps (e.g., cave bears) with those of lions and wolves. At most fossil sites, 1–3% of the lion remains indicate scavenging of lions by hyenas. The larger Late Pleistocene felids focussed on cervids (reindeers specialization during the high glacial = LGM), on bovids (steppe bison/aurochs), and possibly on saiga antelope and on the cave bear, hunting deep in caves during their hibernations and targeting cubs. The cave bear feeding was the target of all three top predators (lions, hyenas, and wolves) in the Late Pleistocene boreal forests which caused deathly conflicts in caves between them, especially with lions/hyenas and herbivorous cave bears that have no modern analogue.

Authentication of animal signatures in traditional Chinese medicine of Lingyang Qingfei Wan using routine molecular diagnostic assays

Lingyang Qingfei Wan produced by Beijing TongRenTang is a long-standing and popular medicine in China and international pharmaceutical markets. Concerns continue to be raised about the legality of usage of saiga antelope, which was defined as endangered species by Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora legislation and internal legislation in China. Therefore, the alternative pill in which substitutes saiga antelope with goat in the formula of Lingyang Qingfei Wan was developed. In order to authenticate the origin of animal contents in Lingyang Qingfei Wan and its alternative pill, molecular diagnostic assay was utilized by mtDNA polymorphism analysis. Four universal primer pairs containing mtDNA 12SrRNA, 16SrRNA, cytochrome b gene and cytochrome oxidase I were employed to obtain species-specific sequences of saiga antelope and goat, and multiple species-specific primer pairs for saiga antelope and goat were used to identify the animal origin in patent pills according to nucleotide polymorphisms between the two species. In additions, alternative techniques were attempted surrounding dilemmas of low concentration of target DNAs and presence of PCR-inhibitory substances in organic ingredients within complex pill. Results revealed that all species-specific primers could be successfully used for authentication of animal origin within complex pill, and sample preprocessing was critical during experimental manipulation. Internal positive control was an efficient and cost-effective way to assist in monitoring the potential interference from inhibitory substances which existed in the highly processed pills.

Rapid development of microsatellite markers for the critically endangered Saiga (Saiga tatarica) using Illumina® Miseq next generation sequencing technology

We developed 17 variable microsatellite markers for the threatened Saiga antelope. Using one Illumina Miseq lane resulted in 105,948 unique fragments containing a microsatellite motif. Eighty-one ordered primer pairs resulted in 26 analyzable fragments, of which 17 markers showed variability in at least one population from Kazakhstan. Number of alleles ranged from 2 to 11 and values of heterozygosity varied from 0.08 to 0.91 (HO) and 0.08 to 0.88 (HE). The markers are currently used to delineate conservation units and to help understanding annual migration dynamics in this species.

Nasal and oral calls in mother and young trunk-nosed saiga antelopes, Saiga tatarica

The trunk-like nose of the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica is a striking example of an exaggerated trait, assumed to having evolved as a dust filter for inhaled air. In addition, it functions to elongate the vocal tract in harem saiga males for producing low-formant calls that serve as a cue to body size for conspecifics. This study applies the source–filter theory to the acoustics of nasal, oral and nasal-and-oral calls that were recorded from a captive herd of 24 mother and 32 neonate saigas within the first 10 days postpartum. Anatomical measurements of the nasal and oral vocal tracts of two specimens (one per age class) helped to establish the settings for the analysis of formants. In both mother and young, the lower formants of nasal calls/call parts were in agreement with the source–filter theory, which suggests lower formants for the longer nasal vocal tract than for the shorter oral vocal tract. Similar fundamental frequencies of the nasal and oral parts of nasal-and-oral calls were also in agreement with the source–filter theory, which postulates the independence of source and filter. However, the fundamental frequency was higher in oral than in nasal calls, probably due to the higher emotional arousal during the production of oral calls. We discuss production mechanisms and the ontogeny of formant patterns of oral and nasal calls among bovid and cervid species with and without a trunk-like nose.

Globalization of the Cashmere Market and the Decline of Large Mammals in Central Asia

As drivers of terrestrial ecosystems, humans have replaced large carnivores in most areas, and human influence not only exerts striking ecological pressures on biodiversity at local scales but also has indirect effects in distant corners of the world. We suggest that the multibillion dollar cashmere industry creates economic motivations that link western fashion preferences for cashmere to land use in Central Asia. This penchant for stylish clothing, in turn, encourages herders to increase livestock production which affects persistence of over 6 endangered large mammals in these remote, arid ecosystems. We hypothesized that global trade in cashmere has strong negative effects on native large mammals of deserts and grassland where cashmere-producing goats are raised. We used time series data, ecological snapshots of the biomass of native and domestic ungulates, and ecologically and behaviorally based fieldwork to test our hypothesis. In Mongolia increases in domestic goat production were associated with a 3-fold increase in local profits for herders coexisting with endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica).That increasing domestic grazing pressure carries fitness consequences was inferred on the basis of an approximately 4-fold difference in juvenile recruitment among blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur)in trans-Himalayan India. Across 7 study areas in Mongolia, India, and China's Tibetan Plateau, native ungulate biomass is now <5% that of domestic species. Such trends suggest ecosystem degradation and decreased capacity for the persistence of native species, including at least 8 Asian endemic species: saiga, chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), snow leopard(Panthera uncia), khulan(Equus hemionus), kiang (E. kiang), takhi (E. przewalski), and wild yak (Bos mutus). Our results suggest striking yet indirect and unintended actions that link trophic-level effects to markets induced by the trade for cashmere.

Changes in grouping patterns of saiga antelope in relation to intrinsic and environmental factors in Mongolia

AbstractFactors that affect group sizes in large ungulates are generally poorly understood for species from remote regions. Understanding grouping patterns is important for effective species management, but is lacking for the endangered Mongolian saiga (Saiga tatarica mongolica). We studied seasonal changes in the group size and social structure of saigas in relation to environmental and anthropogenic factors in western Mongolia during 2009–2012. To identify group size and composition, we observed saigas monthly while conducting monitoring surveys, and weekly while tracking radio‐collared animals. We observed 9268 individuals; median group size was 6.5 (se = 1.7; range = 1–121), and groups of 1–5 animals were most common. Seasonality exerted strong effects with the smallest groups in June and largest in December. The largest mixed and nursery groups formed during pre‐rutting and summer seasons, respectively, but no seasonal differences were detected for bachelor groups. The best fitting model, including Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, predation rate and season as covariates, explained ∼76% of the variation in monthly ‘typical’ group size. Our results are concordant with studies of other arid‐adapted ungulates and suggest vegetation productivity, predation rate and biological cycles are responsible for saiga grouping patterns in Mongolia.

Microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA assessment of the genetic diversity of captive Saiga antelopes (Saiga tatarica) in China

To estimate the genetic diversity of the only captive Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) population in China, 40 umbilical cord samples were collected and mitochondrial (control region) and nuclear (microsatellite) variabilities were assessed. Both of the markers revealed low genetic variability (or high genetic homogeneity) within the population. The microsatellites yielded monitoring ranges of 2–6 alleles. The observed heterozygosities ranged from 0.28 to 0.83, and the expected heterozygosities were between 0.27 and 0.71. The Shannon information index (Shannon I) and Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) presented overall means of 0.87 and 0.43, respectively. The gene diversity was 0.49. We found only two haplotypes in the population, and the haplotype and nucleotide diversities were 39.1% and 1.13%, respectively. Founder events, bottlenecks and inbreeding have contributed to the low genetic variation observed in this population. Our findings revealed the extent of genetic diversity maintained in the present population and the urgency of implementing a protection plan, introducing animals from other populations to enhance saiga’s genetic variation.

Conservation when nothing stands still: moving targets and biodiversity offsets

Conservation is particularly difficult to implement for “moving targets”, such as migratory species or landscapes subject to environmental change. Traditional conservation strategies involving static tools (eg protected areas that have fixed spatial boundaries) may be ineffective for managing species whose ranges are changing. This shortfall needs to be addressed urgently. More dynamic conservation‐based approaches have been suggested but remain mostly theoretical, and so implementation issues and measures of success have yet to be explored. In recent years, however, the concept of biodiversity offsets has gained traction in the conservation community. Such offsets effectively replace biodiversity “lost” during current economic development projects, and are intended to ensure “no net loss” of biodiversity overall. Given their flexibility and unique no‐net‐loss requirement, offsets provide a platform for testing dynamic new approaches to conservation. Here we explore the potential for offsets to conserve moving targets, using a complex dynamic example: the migratory saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) in Uzbekistan.

Current state and prospects of preserving saiga antelope in Northwest Pre-Caspian region

To identify the main factors that affected a catastrophic decrease in the population of the saiga antelope in the Northwest Pre-Caspian region from 800 000 heads in the middle of the past century to about 5000 heads in Spring 2012, long-term data about the saiga antelope biology and the condition of its habitat were analyzed. The results obtained by modern procedures can be used to plan measures for preserving and restoring the population of the saiga antelope in Russia.

Structural and functional comparison of the proboscis between tapirs and other extant and extinct vertebrates

Tapirs (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae) are the only living vertebrates, beyond the order Proboscidea, found to possess a true proboscis, defined as a flexible tubular extension of the joint narial and upper labial musculature that serves, at least in part, to grasp food. Tapirs show only partial homology and analogy with elephants in the narial and upper labial structures, as well as in the skull bones and teeth. However, superficially similar extensions in other extant vertebrates differ greatly in anatomy and function. Therefore, they deserve new names: prorhiscis (e.g. Mammalia: Saiga tatarica), prorhinosis (e.g. Chondrichthyes: Callorhinchus spp.), prorhynchis (e.g. Osteichthyes: Campylomormyrus spp.) and progeneiontis (e.g. Osteichthyes: Gnathonemus spp.). Among non-mammalian vertebrates, no bird or reptile is known to possess a proboscis. Among fishes, there are various extensions of the rostrum, jaws, 'nose' and 'chin' that lack the required narial involvement. The skulls of extinct mammals within (e.g. deinotheres) and beyond (e.g. astrapotheres) the Proboscidea confirm that a proboscis evolved independently in several mammalian lineages before the Pliocene. This convergence with tapirs presumably reflects, in part, the advantages of concentrating the olfactory sensor on what is, effectively, the tip of a long mobile upper lip. However, the proboscis does not appear to have arisen de novo in any vertebrate post-Pliocene, and its continued evolution has apparently depended on the further development of its length, flexibility and innervations, as epitomized by elephants.

Forensic DNA Barcoding and Bio-Response Studies of Animal Horn Products Used in Traditional Medicine

BackgroundAnimal horns (AHs) have been applied to traditional medicine for more than thousands of years, of which clinical effects have been confirmed by the history. But now parts of AHs have been listed in the items of wildlife conservation, which limits the use for traditional medicine. The contradiction between the development of traditional medicine and the protection of wild resources has already become the common concern of zoophilists, traditional medical professionals, economists, sociologists. We believe that to strengthen the identification for threatened animals, to prevent the circulation of them, and to seek fertile animals of corresponding bioactivities as substitutes are effective strategies to solve this problem.Methodology/Principal FindingsA powerful technique of DNA barcoding based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) was used to identify threatened animals of Bovidae and Cervidae, as well as their illegal adulterants (including 10 species and 47 specimens). Meanwhile, the microcalorimetric technique was used to characterize the differences of bio-responses when those animal specimens acted on model organism (Escherichia coli). We found that the COI gene could be used as a universal primer to identify threatened animals and illegal adulterants mentioned above. By analyzing 223 mitochondrial COI sequences, a 100% identification success rate was achieved. We further found that the horns of Mongolian Gazelle and Red Deer could be exploited as a substitute for some functions of endangered Saiga Antelope and Sika Deer in traditional medicine, respectively.Conclusion/SignificanceAlthough it needs a more comprehensive evaluation of bioequivalence in order to completely solve the problem of substitutes for threatened animals, we believe that the identification (DNA barcoding) of threatened animals combined with seeking substitutions (bio-response) can yet be regarded as a valid strategy for establishing a balance between the protection of threatened animals and the development of traditional medicine.

Factors affecting survival and cause-specific mortality of saiga calves in Mongolia

Factors affecting juvenile survival are poorly known in the world’s most northern antelope, the endangered saiga (Saiga tatarica), yet these factors are fundamental for understanding what drives population change. We monitored Mongolia saiga (S. tatarica mongolica) calves in Sharga Nature Reserve, western Mongolia, during 2008–2010. Our results showed that male and single calves were heavier than females and twins, respectively. However, we identified no significant differences in seasonal or annual survival rates between sexes or between singletons and twins. Litter size and birth mass varied among years, and there was a negative relationship between these variables. Survival of calves during the 1st year was best explained by the covariates of year and litter size (confounded with body mass), suggesting that interannual variation in environmental conditions influenced twinning rates and body mass, and might play a key role in 1st-year survival. We identified 3 sources of mortality—predation by raptors, foxes (red fox [Vulpes vulpes] and corsac fox [V. corsac]), and lynx (Lynx lynx). Most predation was attributed to raptors, such as golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus). Our results point to both environmental and biotic factors affecting survival of juvenile saiga.

Forage quality thresholds for Saiga antelope in a semi-desert rangeland

Forage quality thresholds for Saiga antelope in a semi-desert rangeland

Deep sequencing of plant and animal DNA contained within traditional Chinese medicines reveals legality issues and health safety concerns.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been practiced for thousands of years, but only within the last few decades has its use become more widespread outside of Asia. Concerns continue to be raised about the efficacy, legality, and safety of many popular complementary alternative medicines, including TCMs. Ingredients of some TCMs are known to include derivatives of endangered, trade-restricted species of plants and animals, and therefore contravene the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) legislation. Chromatographic studies have detected the presence of heavy metals and plant toxins within some TCMs, and there are numerous cases of adverse reactions. It is in the interests of both biodiversity conservation and public safety that techniques are developed to screen medicinals like TCMs. Targeting both the p-loop region of the plastid trnL gene and the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA gene, over 49,000 amplicon sequence reads were generated from 15 TCM samples presented in the form of powders, tablets, capsules, bile flakes, and herbal teas. Here we show that second-generation, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) of DNA represents an effective means to genetically audit organic ingredients within complex TCMs. Comparison of DNA sequence data to reference databases revealed the presence of 68 different plant families and included genera, such as Ephedra and Asarum, that are potentially toxic. Similarly, animal families were identified that include genera that are classified as vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered, including Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) and Saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica). Bovidae, Cervidae, and Bufonidae DNA were also detected in many of the TCM samples and were rarely declared on the product packaging. This study demonstrates that deep sequencing via HTS is an efficient and cost-effective way to audit highly processed TCM products and will assist in monitoring their legality and safety especially when plant reference databases become better established.

Evaluating the effectiveness of a public awareness campaign as a conservation intervention: the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica in Kalmykia, Russia

AbstractWe carried out an in-depth analysis of a media campaign designed to raise awareness of the ecology and conservation of the Critically Endangered saiga antelope Saiga tatarica in the Pre-Caspian region of Russia. We carried out 250 semi-structured interviews in eight villages. The effectiveness of the campaign was assessed using change in opinion over the previous 3 years as an attitudinal indicator and amount pledged for saiga conservation as a measure of behavioural intention. The campaign induced positive changes in attitudes and behavioural intention. Reinforcement was important, with people's retention of information about saiga conservation from the campaign being positively correlated with their level of ecological knowledge about the species. Similarly, behavioural intention towards the saiga was more likely to be positive in individuals who had a high level of exposure to the species and/or had been subject to two or more different conservation interventions. Level of attitudinal change was dependent on an interaction between the date when the media campaign was carried out and the age of the respondent. We conclude that public awareness campaigns, if designed to take into account the socio-demographics and cultural background of the target audience, can be an effective method of improving attitudes towards conservation.