Sagarmatha National Park Research Articles

Environmental Observations of Solid Waste Management at High Altitude in Nepal: Case Study Along Trekking Route in Sagarmatha National Park

The increasing quantity of solid waste is one of the serious environmental problems in Sagarmatha National Park trekking route. Tourists, trekkers and mountaineers litter the route with plastics, cans, bottles, papers etc. on trails. The lodges, hotels and restaurants also do not have better solutions. The trekking routes from Lukla to Everest Base Camp are littered by more than 30,000 visitors coming to the region within a year. The main reason is due to the concentration of the studies of solid waste mainly in urban areas, lack of environmental awareness and public as well as local participation, lack of understanding of the complex mountain ecosystem and negligence of long term impact to tourism industry.´There have been various initiatives and researches carried out by Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Sagarmatha Pollution Control Committee (SPCC), Nepal Mountaineering Association (NMA), Ev-K2-CNR and various other agencies including NGOs despite which the situation still remains to be resolved and demand further improvement. This paper describes the observations study on SWM carried out during the trekking by Nepalese and Swedish researchers in April 2010 and recommendations drawn out from the study. The issues raised and the problems identified during the study would need to be properly addressed, which would be instrumental in finding way forward and augment the planning of the daunting tasks of Solid Waste Management in the region.

The Global Warming Potential of Building Materials: An Application of Life Cycle Analysis in Nepal

This paper analyzes the global-warming potential of materials used to construct the walls of 3 building types—traditional, semimodern, and modern—in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone in Nepal, using the life-cycle assessment approach. Traditional buildings use local materials, mainly wood and stone, while semimodern and modern buildings use different amounts of commercial materials, such as cement and glass wool. A comparison of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the 3 building types, using as the functional unit 1 m2 of wall, found that traditional buildings release about one-fourth of the greenhouse gas emissions released by semimodern buildings and less than one-fifth of the emissions of modern buildings. However, the use of thermal insulation in the modern building walls helps to reduce the energy consumption for space heating and consequently to reduce the global warming potential. In 25 years, the total global warming potential of a traditional building will be 20% higher than that ...

Assessing Ecosystem Health: An Analysis of Tourism related Change and Impact in Khumbu Valley, Nepal

Available with fulltext.Key words: Sagarmatha National Park; Tourism; Water quality; Biotic index; Human healthEcoprint An International Journal of Ecology Vol. 14, 2007 Page:45-64 Uploaded date: 31 May, 2011

Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sagarmatha National Park, a World Heritage Site in the Himalayas of Eastern Nepal

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes that occurred during 1992–2011 in Sagarmatha National Park, a United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization World Heritage Site in the Himalayas of eastern Nepal, were evaluated using multitemporal satellite imagery in combination with land use data and sociological information gathered from semistructured interviews and workshops. We asked study participants about LULC changes, the causes of each change, and the likely duration of its effects, and used this information to produce high-resolution maps of local perceptions of LULC change. Satellite image analysis revealed that above 6000 m there has been a decrease in the area covered by snow and ice and a consequent expansion of glacial lakes and areas covered by rock and soil. Between 3000 and 6000 m, forest and farmland are decreasing, and areas under grazing, settlement, and shrubland are increasing. Such LULC changes within the protected area clearly indicate the prevailing danger of land degr...

Site- and species-specific treeline responses to climatic variability in eastern Nepal Himalaya

Alpine treelines act as bio-indicators and bio-monitors of environmental change impacts in high elevation forests. This dendro-ecological study carried out in treeline ecotones in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (SNP), eastern Nepal Himalaya, aimed to assess treeline dynamics and to understand the response of treeline forming Abies spectabilis (D. Don, Mirb) and Betula utilis (D. Don) to environmental change. At three treeline sites we placed two to four belt transects (size: 20m wide, variable length) which bisected the treeline as well as the tree species limit. The results revealed spatio-temporally heterogeneous regeneration with a higher regeneration of A. spectabilis compared to B. utilis. Warm temperatures during summer (JJA) growing seasons combined with sufficient moisture favored the growth of A. spectabilis while moisture stress during spring seasons (MAM) mainly limited the growth of B. utilis. The regeneration of A. spectabilis was favored by high temperatures throughout the year with sufficient moisture. The climatic response of the regeneration of B. utilis was spatiotemporally different and variable. Results predict a changing community structure in the treeline in response to future environmental change. During the past 200 years, A. spectabilis shifted upward by about 0.93m/yr and B. utilis by 0.42m/yr, with stabilization during the second half of the 20th century at the majority of the sites. The recent stability in treeline position of both species at most sites indicated that in addition to favorable climate, species-specific competitive abilities during the recruitment phase, recruitment suppression in the Krummholz and dwarf scrub belts, and grazing determine regeneration success and treeline position in the region.

Drinking Water Quality in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

In 2014 we began the first systematic study of water quality, specifically fecal contamination of drinking water in the Khumbu Valley, Sagarmatha National Park (SNP, Mt. Everest region), Nepal. Our goal was to identify coliform bacteria and E. coli in drinking water and groundwater-fed springs to generate a data set that will function as a base for potable water supplies and further monitoring. Sampling occurred in May (pre-monsoon summer) and early November (post-monsoon early winter) 2014. Sample sites were selected based on proximity to villages and primary use as a drinking water source. Overall, the data presented a predictable correlation between fecal contamination and both elevation and increasing population/tourist traffic. Drinking water within the study area met current World Health Organization drinking water standards for the physical properties of temperature (2.8°C - 13°C), pH (5.27 - 7.24), conductivity (14.5 - 133 mS) and TDS (7.24 - 65.5 ppm). Samples from the more populated, lower altitude areas had higher levels of E. coli. Samples collected and analyzed in May (pre-monsoon summer) had a higher level of E. coli and coliform bacteria than samples collected in November (post-monsoon early winter) suggesting a seasonal dependence overlaid on the population signature. Surface water typically had higher E. coli values than groundwater-fed springs. Temperature, total dissolved solids and conductivity generally decreased with increasing elevation, whereas pH increased with increasing elevation. There appears to be significant presence of fecal contamination of water sources due to a combination of tourism, elevation and seasons.

Taxus wallichiana (Himalayan Yew) for the Livelihood of Local People in Some Protected Areas of Nepal

Nepal is a small country but diverse in ethnic communities living in different parts of the country. These ethnic communities have been practicing the indigenous knowledge of plants for their livelihood. The objective of this study is to document the traditional knowledge of one of the most important medicinal plant species Taxus wallichiana Zucc. in different altitudinal gradients in Manaslu Conservation Area, Sagarmatha National Park and surrounding and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area. This study was carried out in six altitudinal gradients (2200 m asl to 3800 masl) with altitudinal steps of 400 m asl. We used direct observation method and standardized interviews to collect the data related to the use of T. wallichiana. Out of five caste groups, only four were local to the site while one cast had migrated from Terai region and had settled down recently. The four caste groups included Sherpa, Tamang, Rai and Gurung who have been using the plant products for various reasons. People used the species as timber, medicine for jaundice and cancer, fence, construction material for houses and cattle fodder. Knowledge of the use of T. wallichiana was mainly available at an altitude of 2600 m a.s.l., the species altitudinal distribution optimum. Most of the informants were related to community forests in the study areas and many also depend on plants for their livelihood. This study also helped the local people by informing them about sustainable use and conservation of this plant in the study areas.J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vol. 28, 2014: 1-8

On some Diatoms from High Altitude Gokyo Lake-Iii, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

The present paper describes total 16 taxa of diatoms under 12 genera, belonging to 1 centric (Cyclotella antiqua W. Smith var. minor Suxena & Venkateswarlu) and 15 pennate species from Gokyo lake- III, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Of these, 6 were the new records for the country. The morphological descriptions, taxonomic accounts and distribution are described systematically with photographs J. Nat. Hist. Mus. Vol. 26, 2012: 93-110

English

An extensive research on deciphering lichen diversity in the high Nepalese Himalaya was undertaken in two subsequent years in Manaslu Conservation Area (MCA) and Sagarmatha National Park (SNP). Altogether, 621 specimens were collected from these two regions, viz., 173 from MCA and 448 from SNP, which resulted in the occurrence of a total of 13 species of lichens from MCA (belonging to 4 families) and 69 species belonging to 15 different families from SNP. Among the lichen families reported from these two study sites, family Parmeliaceae (7 and 29 species from MCA and SNP, respectively) was the dominant one followed by Physciaceae (12 species from SNP) and Cladoniaceae (4 and 8 from MCA and SNP, respectively). Thus, this research work, to some extent, reveals the lichens enrichment in the study region, furnishing much new insights that can be used as a composite signal of environmental quality and future bio-monitoring studies. Key words: Bio-indicators, endemism, geographical gradients, speciation.

Geomorphologic and Hydrogeologic Characteristics of Populated Rockslide Deposits (Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal, Nepal)

Surface morphology and internal composition of large rockslide deposits have been frequently studied, but their hydrogeologic conditions and consequences for (drinking) water quality and quantity on such deposits are largely unknown. In this study we provide first information on this critical relationship for two large rockslide deposits in the Khumbu Himal (Nepal), which are at the same time the main settlement areas in the region. In the first step, we investigated the Lukla and the Namche-Khumjung rockslides with respect to their dimensions and internal composition based on orthophotos and digital elevation models, geomorphologic field mapping, and the analysis of rockslide outcrops. Secondly, we studied their hydrogeologic characteristics by means of spring water mapping, sampling and analyses. As a consequence of the fragmented and highly shattered rockslide material, both deposits are characterized by 1) effective infiltration, 2) short residence times of percolating water and 3) by only small amounts of available spring water and surface runoff at all. Human activity on the studied rockslide deposits can therefore be described as an ambivalent relationship: On the one hand, the rockslide deposits provide a gentle topography and the only available areas for extensive settlements and agriculture in the steep upper DudhKosi catchment; On the other hand, their internal composition accounts for water scarcity—a critical issue for the local population demanding for adaptation strategies, especially in the light of the ever—increasing trekking and expedition tourism in the region.

Hydro-Chemistry of Gokyo Valley, Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal

This research work records the baseline inventory of selected ions in running waters of Gokyo Valley, Nepal and tries to establish relationship of these ions’ concentration with elevation gradient. Among these selected hydro-chemical parameters, the average concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, and total silica were determined to be 3.25 (±2.02), 0.64 (±0.47), 207.2 (±423.01) and 0.36 (±0.17) mg/L respectively. Concentration of these parameters was low compared to earlier studies except that could be justified too since the sampling was performed only once in drier period with low atmospheric input of acid protons required for weathering process. Moreover, Pearson Product-moment Correlation Coefficients (r) for elevation gradient and concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, and total silica were determined to be +0.350, +0.145, +0.101 and &#450.275 respectively. Such weak relationship between these parameters and elevation gradient suggests that the concentration of these ions is related to weathering phenomena, glacier and watershed characteristics and snow cover dynamics in Gokyo Valley.

Effect of summer livestock grazing on plant species richness and composition in the Himalayan rangelands

Grazing systems in the high Himalayas are changing in response to socioeconomic factors and policy decisions. As well as effects on livelihood of herders, such changes may have significant impacts on plant species richness and composition. The objectives of this study were to explore how plant species richness and composition respond to livestock grazing in the high Himalayan rangelands. The study was conducted in three mountainous Protected Areas of Nepal viz. Sagarmatha (Mt Everest) National Park, Gaurishankar Conservation Area and Khaptad National Park. Species and environmental data were collected along perpendicular transects outwards from goths (semi-permanent stopping and camping points). It was found that the distance from goths generally represents a grazing disturbance gradient. The core areas near goths had low species richness per plot (α-diversity) where nitrophilous and grazing-tolerant species were commonly found. However, the highest species richness, total numbers of species and occurrences of rare species at mid- and farther distances from goths within 800 m suggest that negative effects of summer livestock grazing were small and confined to limited areas near goths. Altitude, soil moisture content, percentage shrub cover and distance from goths were the variables significantly correlated with species composition, although the relative importance of these factors varied across study sites. This research can be used to inform decision-making about seasonal livestock grazing in the Himalayan rangelands, which should incorporate both ecological as well as socioeconomic considerations.

Geomorphic Processes, Rock Quality and Solid Waste Management—Examples from the Mt. Everest Region of Nepal

Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone (SNPBZ) in the Everest region in Nepal is among the most popular destinations for trekking tourism in Nepal. The dramatic growth of the tourism industry has increased pressures on the environment and the National Park is heavily affected by the rapidly growing waste issue. Besides, major mass movements play an important role in the Himalaya and have been observed in SNPBZ. Also, seasonal monsoon floods, debris flows, rock falls, landslides and the creation of glacial lake outburst floods are frequently occurring in the region. This paper explores the reciprocal interactions between the geo-environment and solid waste management in Everest’s SNPBZ. Therefore, geological characteristics and geomorphological processes, especially the two large rockslides in Lukla and Khumjung, as well as their consequences for rock quality, climatic and hydrologic conditions, are analyzed and simultaneously connected to the rapidly growing tourism-induced waste issue. Rockslide material shows high porosity and permeability. Thus, we argue that rockslide facies are particularly vulnerable to contamination by waste water and washed out agricultural fertilizers, which pose threats to the population especially in Namche Bazaar but probably also in Lukla. Also, the landfill sites are often affected by geomorphological processes and may consequently contaminate surface and ground water. Results highlight that regional infrastructure planning of landfill sites often collides with the natural features of the geo-environment and often causes harm to human health and the environment. The implications of the results can be applied to similar areas (such as Marsyandi Valley, Kali Gandaki Valley) with special geological characteristics and rapidly growing waste issues.

Promoting science-based, community-driven approaches to climate change adaptation in glaciated mountain ranges: HiMAP

ABSTRACTGlaciated mountains remain among the most under-studied regions in the world from a physical, social and climate change perspective, which complicates the development of appropriate adaptation and hazard mitigation approaches. The goal of the High Mountains Adaptation Partnership (HiMAP) project is to create conditions necessary for all the stakeholders who live in, or are dependent upon glacial watersheds, to become more resilient to the impacts of climate change. This article documents the origins, establishment, implementation and experiences of the HiMAP in the Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park and Buffer Zone in Khumbu, Nepal, from its formation in March 2012 up to August 2014. Regardless of the Partnership's success, it is clear that glacier-dominated areas of the world will continue to pose unique challenges to highland and downstream communities as they adapt to the impacts of global climate change, particularly in terms of the increasing threats of glacial lake outburst floods. Given the critical importance of glaciated landscapes to the millions of people living in cities and communities downstream, this article demonstrates that interdisciplinary climate change research approaches and applied field projects are necessary for climate change adaptation initiatives to be effective.

Changes in Imja Tsho in the Mount Everest region of Nepal

Abstract. Imja Tsho, located in the Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park of Nepal, is one of the most studied and rapidly growing lakes in the Himalayan range. Compared with previous studies, the results of our sonar bathymetric survey conducted in September of 2012 suggest that its maximum depth has increased from 90.5 to 116.3 ± 5.2 m since 2002, and that its estimated volume has grown from 35.8 ± 0.7 to 61.7 ± 3.7 million m3. Most of the expansion of the lake in recent years has taken place in the glacier terminus–lake interface on the eastern end of the lake, with the glacier receding at about 52 m yr−1 and the lake expanding in area by 0.04 km2 yr−1. A ground penetrating radar survey of the Imja–Lhotse Shar glacier just behind the glacier terminus shows that the ice is over 200 m thick in the center of the glacier. The volume of water that could be released from the lake in the event of a breach in the damming moraine on the western end of the lake has increased to 34.1 ± 1.08 million m3 from the 21 million m3 estimated in 2002.

Status, Distribution, Conservation and Use Value of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal

The study attempts to assess the status, distribution, conservation and use value of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant (MAPs) in the Sagarmatha National Park. Altogether 62 species of MAPs belonging to 47 genera and 33 families have been recorded in the study area. 10 species, belonging to 9 families are categorized as the potential species. Out of the these species, most potential in local but threatened species are Allium hypsistum Stearn, Cordyceps sinensis Sacc, Dactylorhiza hatagirea Soo, Nardostachys grandiflora DC, Aconitum orochryseum, Ephedra gerardiana Wall. Ex. Stapf, Swertia multicaulis D. Don, Picrorhiza scrophulariflora Penne, Rheum australe. D. Don, Malva verticillataL and Swertia pedicallata Benerji. By analysis of data using Simpson’s diversity index (SI) and Shannon weaver function (H’), there was high diversity (more heterogeneous) MAPs species composition in the Manjo Gate to Large Dobhan. (0.98349). Less diversity (less heterogeneous) MAPs species composition was in Tyanboche to Pangoche (0.90419). Similarly, the Shannon weaver function shows that in plots laying out in Mongla to Phorche are evenly distributed than others However, higher MAPs species (i.e., 31) was found in the way of Manjo Gate to Larja Dobhan than others.

Human interactions with forest landscape in the Khumbu valley, Nepal

Abstract High altitude Himalayan regions are geo-dynamically active and sensitive to natural disturbances. Nonetheless, even in this remote region, human pressure is often most important in influencing forest and landscape structure. In the last decades, fuelwood demand has risen due to increasing numbers of tourists and mountaineers. To understand human interactions with forest resources, stand structure and composition were examined at the landscape scale in the Sagarmatha National Park and its Buffer Zone in the Khumbu valley (Nepal). Using biological and historical data sources, a multi-scale approach revealed the influence of human activities on the distribution of tree species and forest structure. We sampled stand structure and environmental characteristics from 173 plots, and derived anthropogenic variables from thematic maps and satellite images for multivariate statistical analyses. Results suggest relationships among forest structure, anthropogenic influences, and topography. Low-density stands (100–150 tph) with sparse trees and rare big trees were in close proximity (0–36 m) to tracks and lodges. The wide variability in species diversity (0.67 at SNP and 0.58 at BZ) was strongly related to environmental factors, such as elevation, and human pressure. The frequent removal of green branches has adverse effects on tree growth, forest resistance, resilience, and regeneration capacity. We conclude that natural resources can adequately supply the local population needs, but current practices are not sustainable.

Prediction of climate warming impacts on plant species could be more complex than expected. Evidence from a case study in the Himalaya

Many studies have investigated the possible impact of climate change on the distributions of plant species. In the present study, we test whether the concept of potential distribution is able to effectively predict the impact of climate warming on plant species.Using spatial simulation models, we related the actual (current species distribution), potential (modelled distribution assuming unlimited dispersal) and predicted (modelled distribution accounting for wind-limited seed dispersal) distributions of two plant species under several warming scenarios in the Sagarmatha National Park (Nepal). We found that the two predicted distributions were, respectively, seven and nine times smaller than the potential ones. Under a +3°C scenario, both species would likely lose their actual and predicted distributions, while their potential distributions would remain partially safe. Our results emphasize that the predicted distributions of plant species may diverge to a great extent from their potential distributions, particularly in mountain areas, and predictions of species preservation in the face of climate warming based on the potential distributions of plant species are at risk of producing overoptimistic projections.We conclude that the concept of potential distribution is likely to lead to limited or inefficacious conservation of plant species due to its excessively optimistic projections of species preservation. More robust strategies should utilize concepts such as “optimal reintroduction”, which maximizes the benefit–cost ratio of conservation activities by limiting reintroduction efforts to suitable areas that could not otherwise be reached by a species; moreover, such strategies maximize the probability of species establishment by excluding areas that will be endangered under future climate scenarios.

Recovery of the snow leopard in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park: effects on main prey

Consequences of predation may be particularly heavy on small populations of herbivores, especially if they are threatened with extinction. Over the 2006-2010 period, we documented the effects of the spontaneous return of the en- dangered snow leopard on the population of the vulnerable Himalayan tahr. The study area was an area of central Himalaya where this cat disappeared c. 40 years before, be- cause of persecution by man. Snow leopards occurred mainly in areas close to the core area of tahr distribution. Tahr was the staple (56.3 %) of snow leopards. After the arrival of this cat, tahr decreased by more than 2/3 from 2003 to 2010 (mainly through predation on kids). Subsequently, the density of snow leopards decreasedby60% from2007 to 2010. The main prey of snow leopards in Asia (bharal, marmots) were absent in our study area, forcing snow leopards to specialize on tahr. The restoration of a complete prey spectrum should be favoured through reintroductions, to conserve large carnivores and to reduce exploitation of small populations of herbivores, espe- cially if threatened.

Metals Assessments in the Water Bodies of Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone, Nepal

Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park (SNP) of Nepal is a popular international eco-touristic destination. In the last few years, tourist flow has increased tremendously generating anthropogenic pressure on natural environment. Generation of huge solid waste, open defecation and poor septic tank condition of toilets have been considered as the major sources of pollution to water bodies in the area. Heavy metals, such as cadmium, copper, lead, chromium and mercury, are important environmental pollutants, particularly in areas with high anthropogenic pressure. Their presence in the atmosphere, soil and water, even in traces can cause serious problems to all organisms, and heavy metal bioaccumulation in the food chain especially can be highly dangerous to human health. Heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Mn, Fe and Zn) and metals (Na, Mg) were analyzed. Thirty nine (13 samples in each year) water samples were collected from river and springs to assess the water quality in the SNP and its buffer zone. Water quality in the SNP has been found degraded in terms of heavy metals; particularly Na and Mg contents were found higher when compared with the earlier report. Iron content in 46% samples was found more than WHO and Nepalese standard for drinking water. The river water quality in general still stands good in terms of standard for drinking water (WHO, Nepal standard) however degradation process has accelerated.