Saffron Samples Research Articles

Chemical, biochemical and volatile profiles of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) from different growing areas of Morocco

AbstractBackgroundThe saffron (Crocus sativus L.) planted area and production increased in the past decade in Morocco. This crop has been extended to new regions beyond its original main area due to the shift in climate conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the chemical characterization and the quality of saffron stigma samples collected from 11 different localities.ResultsAccording to the ISO3632 standard method, all samples were within the ISO36‐32.2010 categorization range (category I and II) Contents of crocin responsible for color, picrocrocin responsible for taste, and safranal responsible for the aroma, showed significant differences between samples from different areas. The biochemical analysis revealed that samples from Boulmane (Serghina and El Mers) are rich in polyphenols (5.70 ± 0.34; 5.31 ± 0.004 mg GAE/g DW, respectively) and have an important antioxidant power (IC50 for the DPPH: 231.12 ± 1.065; 236.77 ± 2109 respectively) compared to those from Taznakht and Taliouine known for their higher organoleptic quality. Interestingly, volatile profiling by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry identified the safranal, isophorone, ketoisophorone, ß‐isophorone, and 1‐4‐cyclohexanedione, 2,2,6‐trimethyl as the main volatile compounds in saffron samples from different regions.ConclusionThis study is the first to be conducted in Morocco on saffron newly cultivated in new regions (Boulmane, Azilal, and Ain Leuh) and showed the higher potential for growing saffron, thus promoting the adoption of saffron as a substitute crop for the socio‐economic development in these new areas.

SaffNet: an ensemble-based approach for saffron adulteration prediction using statistical image features.

Saffron is one of the costlier spices that are cultivated in specific regions of the world. Due to its restricted accessibility and more popularity, eventually saffron adulteration is one of the concerning issues in the recent times. It becomes difficult for human vision to discriminate between real and adulterated saffron samples. With the emergence of visual computing and data-driven algorithms, the saffron adulteration prediction systems (SAPS) are designed to predict the original and adulterated saffron samples. However, the majority of the techniques exhibit promising performance but the problem of generalization capabilities (unseen - samples) and scarcity of the saffron databases are still open research challenges. In this work, to overcome these issues, we propose a novel ensemble-based saffron prediction model (SaffNet) using statistical image features for the detection of contamination in the Kashmiri saffron. As data-driven approaches mainly rely on the representative samples, but to the best of our knowledge the standard benchmark datasets for Kashmiri saffron is not available. Therefore, we have created our novel Saffron dataset (Saff-Kash) collected afresh from different parts of Kashmir valley that includes the samples of both the authentic and adulterated saffron classes. The primary aim of the work is to anticipate the adulteration in saffron samples. Thereafter, these images are pre-processed and the dataset is prepared for the proposed SaffNet model. The SaffNet architecture designed using gradient boosting ensemble evaluated on Saff-Kash outperforms the outcomes of individual classifiers i.e., Support vector machine (SVM), decision tree, and K-Nearest neighbor (KNN) with an overall accuracy of 98%. Moreover, the execution time taken by the SaffNet model for training the SVM classifier is 8.56 milliseconds whereas for gradient boosting classifier it is 7.7 milliseconds.

Geographical origin differentiation and quality determination of saffron using a portable Hyperspectral imaging system

A portable Hyperspectral Imaging (HSI) system (400–1000 nm) coupled with chemometrics techniques was developed to identify the geographical origin and to determine the Crocins content of saffron rapidly and non-destructively. Reflectance spectra of 160 saffron samples from two geographical origins were captured and preprocessed using the Savitzky–Golay (SG) algorithm. PCA as an unsupervised clustering and PLS-DA, RBF, and MLP as supervised techniques were applied for the classification and geographical origin differentiation of the samples. Afterward, the sample’s Crocins content was measured and their associations with their spectra were modeled using PLSR, RBF, and MLP models. The PCA results indicated that saffron samples were originally distributed in two different clusters. PLS-DA model with a spectral range from 400 to 1000 nm achieved the best clustering performance (Sensitivity and Specificity: 100 %). The RBF model showed good predictive capabilities in the saffron Crocins content prediction and quality evaluation (R2cal > 0.94 and R2pred > 0.83).

Non-targeted metabolomics and chemometrics for saffron (Crocus sativus L.) authentication and adulteration detection in relation to its anticholinesterase activity

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), is a spice of vulnerable medical importance. It is often adulterated to lower its quality and efficacy. The present study sought to detect the level of adulteration in five traded saffron collected from different localities using a high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-HR-MS/MS) technique. In total, 62 metabolites were identified in the five extracts namely from monoterpene aldehydes, flavonoid derivatives, apocarotenoids and carotenoids classes as well as chemical markers of adulteration. One common adulterant; Gardenia jasminoides Ellis was detected through the simultaneous determination of its specific constituents including geniposide, shanzhiside and major jasminosides. Also, one synthetic dye; auramine-O was detected in one marketed saffron product. The anticholinesterase activity of the five marketed saffron was also evaluated. Furthermore, saffron samples that contain high crocin levels possessed a promising anticholinesterase activity. It was detected for the first time that auramine-O dye is sometimes used as a potential adulterant of saffron. In spite of the grand researches on saffron, it still lacks an accurate evaluation of the commercial saffron products. The results of our study showed that high adulteration rate of trade saffron not only reduces saffron efficacy as a herbal remedy but may also simultaneously represent a health risk.

On the Importance of the Starting Material Choice and Analytical Procedures Adopted When Developing a Strategy for the Nanoencapsulation of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Bioactive Antioxidants.

Saffron is known as the most expensive spice in the world. It is comprised of the dried stigmas of the pistil of the Crocus sativus L., which is a cultivated, sterile crocus plant. This plant material is now recognized as the unique edible source of certain bioactive apocarotenoids for which in-vivo antioxidant properties have been reported. Among the latter, crocins, red-orange natural colorants, and their parent molecule crocetin prevail in bioactivity significance. This review is focused on the strategies developed so far for their nanoencapsulation in relation to the characteristics of the starting material, extraction procedures of the bioactive antioxidants and analytical methods applied for their characterization and quantification throughout the process. The literature so far points out gaps that lead to publishable data, on one hand, but not necessarily to repeatable and meaningful processes due to incomplete characterization of the starting and the released material in efficiency and stability studies of the nanoencapsulates. Accurate terminology and quantitative chromatographic or spectrophotometric procedures for the determination of the core compounds are needed. Authenticity control and quality of saffron samples, and the verification of the concentrations of compounds in commercial preparations labeled as 'crocin,' are prerequisites in any experimental design setup.

Quality of Saffron in Oman Markets

Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world, it is highly valued as a culinary spice for its flavor and color properties. Since saffron is an expensive product, it is cheated by the dealers, therefore, quality control of saffron is important for the spice industries and also the consumers. This study aims to evaluate the saffron quality in Omani markets according to the ISO standard. A total of 21 saffron samples were examined; 2 in powder form and 19 in filaments. The samples of saffron were purchased from different hyper-markets and local markets in Muscat, Oman. Saffron’s commercial value is determined according to the ISO standard which include moisture, ash, acid insoluble ash, extract %, sulfuric test, artificial colors, spectrum, Flavor, aroma and color. The saffron samples were in line with standard in terms of moisture, ash, acid insoluble ash and extract %. The two powder saffron samples failed in sulfuric, spectrum and flavor tests. From the 19 samples of saffron filament, three samples were failed to achieve the flavor and color limits required by the standard. This failure to standard quality could be due to poor processing condition such as drying and packaging or due to adulteration. The standard parameters could not distinguish between low quality and adulteration due to its limited and unspecific parameters. Therefore, we recommend improving the saffron standard with parameters targeting adulteration.

Effect of Soil Composition on Secondary Metabolites of Moroccan Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)

Climate and soil are important factors that affect the quality of saffron. Saffron quality is determined by the marked content of secondary metabolites. The objective of this work was to study the effect of soil physicochemical properties on the secondary metabolites of saffron. Our study concerned the analysis of saffron samples by high-performance liquid chromatography-detection by diode array (HPLC-DAD). Soil samples were analyzed by physicochemical methods, ED-XRF fluorescence and X-ray diffraction to determine the different types of clays. Saffron samples grown in loam-clay-sand soils contained high values of crocins and kaempferol 3-sophoroside 7-glucoside but low values of safranal. In addition, saffron samples grown in soils rich in organic matter, phosphorus and potassium contained high values of crocins and kaempferol 3-sophoroside 7-glucoside but low values of safranal. This original approach was carried out for the first time in our study, both by ED-XRF fluorescence and by X-ray diffraction, to determine what elements affect the quality of saffron. Thus, we concluded that clays containing low amounts of iron could have a positive effect on the coloring strength of saffron.

Saffron Characterization by a Multidisciplinary Approach

Saffron is a spice obtained from the drying process of the stigmas of the flower Crocus sativus Linnaeus. It is well known that the organoleptic characteristics of this spice are closely linked to the production area and harvesting year. The present work aims to evaluate whether saffron samples produced in different years and origins present sensibly different crocin profiles. To achieve this goal, 120 saffron samples were harvested between 2016 and 2020 in four different Italian areas. The crocins were analysed, identified, and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS) in multiple reaction monitoring mode (MRM). Subsequently, ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA) was used to evaluate whether the origin and annuity significantly affected the composition of the crocins. ASCA confirmed the relevance of these effects. Eventually, soft independent modelling by class analogy (SIMCA) models were created for each of the four different origins. Mixtures of saffron from different areas were also prepared to test the robustness of the models. SIMCA provided satisfying results; in fact, models provided 100% sensitivity for three origins (Cascia, Sardinia, and Città della Pieve) on the external test set (48 samples) and 88% (sensitivity on the external test set) for the Spoleto class.

A Novel FTIR-Based Chemometric Solution for the Assessment of Saffron Adulteration with Non-Fresh Stigmas.

The development of fast, non-destructive, and green methods with adequate sensitivity for saffron authentication has important implications in the quality control of the entire production chain of this precious spice. In this context, the highly suitable sensitivity of a spectroscopic method coupled with chemometrics was verified. A total number of 334 samples were analyzed using attenuated-total-reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy; the collected spectra were processed by partial-least-squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to evaluate the feasibility of this study for the discrimination between compliant saffron (fresh samples produced in 2020) and saffron samples adulterated with non-fresh stigmas produced in 2018 and 2016. PLS-DA was able to classify the saffron samples in accordance with the aging time and to discriminate fresh samples from the samples adulterated with non-fresh (legally expired) stigmas, achieving 100% of both sensitivity and specificity in external prediction. Moreover, PLS regression was able to predict the adulteration level with sufficient accuracy (the root-mean-square error of prediction was approximately 3-5%). In summary, ATR-FTIR and chemometrics can be employed to highlight the illegal blending of fresh saffron with unsold stocks of expired saffron, which may be a common fraudulent practice not yet considered in the scientific literature.

The comparison of two microextraction methods for the determination of safranal from Iranian saffron

In this study, safranal as the main component of the pleasant aroma of saffron was extracted and analyzed by two liquid-phase microextraction based methods, namely ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction and solidified floating organic drop microextraction. These methods are fast, simple, low-cost, environmentally friendly and efficient procedures that have been developed for the determination of safranal from aqueous samples. Extracted safranal was determined by high pressure liquid chromatography and the performance of the above mentioned methods was compared accurately. A narrow neck glass tube was used for the simple and rapid collection of the low-density organic phase from the sample surface after its centrifugation. A dynamic range over 0.1 to 5 μg mL−1 of safranal and limit of detection of 20 ng mL−1 were obtained for ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction. In addition, the dynamic range for solidified floating organic drop microextraction was between 0.02 to 5 μg mL−1 as well as a limit of detection of 3 ng mL−1 was obtained. Furthermore, the enrichment factor and recovery percent were 38 and 101±4.6% in ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction besides 252 and 25.2 ± 5.8% in solidified floating organic drop microextraction. The applicability of the proposed methods was evaluated by the extraction and determination of safranal from different Iranian saffron samples and finally, the results were validated by the ISO 3632 procedure.

QUALITATIVE DIAGNOSTIC OF CROCUS SATIVUS L. FROM DIFFERENT ENDEMIC ORIGINS OF TALIOUINE REGION IN THE SOUTH OF MOROCCO: HYGROSCOPIC BEHAVIOR AND MAIN SECONDARY METABOLITES ANALYSIS

This study examined the water activity and equilibrium moisture content of saffron stigmas from different aeras of Taliouine region, south of Morocco with a diversity of altitudes and climates. The static gravimetric method was used to explain the hygroscopic behavior of saffron at three different temperatures (30, 40, and 50 °C). The quality of these saffron samples was evaluated by determining the concentration of their main compounds: safranal, crocin and picrocrocin using the ISO 3632-2 method by UV-vis. The water activity for conservation of Crocus sativus L. was range between 0.32 and 0.34 under the experimental conditions. The impact of the three irrigation systems (drip, gravity and porous) on the water activity has been studied. All the six endemic origins identified by altitudes (2100 m, 1700 m, 1600 m, 1500 m, 1200 m and 1000 m) used in this diagnosis were classified according to ISO 3632-1 in two classes: categories I for saffron from altitudes 1700, 1600 and 1200 m and categories II for saffron from altitudes 2100, 1500 and 1000 m. The samples from altitude 1700 m recorded high quality of secondary metabolites represented by concentrations of crocin (291.68 ) and picrocrocin (120.11 ).

Crocus sativus (L.) Grown in Pots with High Volume Capacity: From a Case of Study to a Patent

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) cultivation is widespread in different parts of the world, including various Mediterranean areas. The crop management techniques, requiring intensive manual labor from planting, weeding, flower picking to the collecting of stigmas, contribute greatly to the high price of the spice. Traditionally, the corms are cultivated in field soil and only stigmas are collected to obtain the spice while the flower’s remaining parts, corresponding to about 90% of the total biomass, are discarded and thrown away. In this study, in order to overcome some difficulties occurring during the whole crop cycle (pathogens, fungi, pests, weeds, etc.), as well as to ease and increase floral bioresidue recovery, an alternative planting way for Crocus sativus L. was proposed relying on the use of large pots. For this aim, corms with 3.0–3.5 cm diameter size, from two different geographical origins (Spain, Holland), were planted in plastic pots with a volume of 250 L or 350 L, placed in two different areas of the Basilicata region (Italy). The effect of this new growing condition on dry stigma yield as well as daughter corm yield and size was evaluated. Although this cultivation system is more expensive than the traditional one, it offers numerous and huge advantages. Among them, it allows us to maintain a more correct posture and to preserve flower integrity during harvesting. The structural integrity of the tepals is a very important factor to obtain innovative dried flowers in their original tridimensional shape (3D). Consequently, the proposed cultivation system facilitates the achievement of a real “niche product” with high added value (absence of pollen grains). Moreover, the qualitative analysis of the spice, performed according to the International Standardization Organization Normative 3632 (ISO 3632-2/1:2010/2011), classified all investigated saffron samples in the first qualitative category. The results of the first three trial years are very exciting and promising as they are similar to those from the literature carried out in ground soil. However, corms from Spain gave the best results. Further investigations are in progress in order to optimize this alternative cultivation system.

Authentication of saffron using 60 MHz 1H NMR spectroscopy

60 MHz proton NMR spectroscopy was used to analyse extracts from saffron spice and a range of potential adulterants and mixtures. Using a simple extraction procedure, good quality spectra were obtained which contain peaks from the characteristic metabolites picrocrocin and crocins, fatty acids and kaempferol. The spectra of samples from trusted suppliers were used to train one-class classification models by SIMCA, nearest neighbour and isolation forest methods. Applying these to spectra of saffron samples purchased from the online marketplace, it was found that 7 out of 33 samples were highly anomalous. From comparison with the spectra of known mixtures and confirmatory spectral analysis using 600 MHz NMR, it is probable that these contain considerable amounts of undisclosed foreign matter.

Authentication of Iranian Saffron (Crocus sativus) Using Stable Isotopes δ13C and δ2H and Metabolites Quantification.

Saffron is a very high value-added ingredient used in the food supplement market and contains a high level of safranal. Adding synthetic safranal to saffron, which is significantly cheaper, and falsifying the origin of saffron may represent recurrent fraud. Saffron from different countries was analyzed to determine the stable isotope ratios δ13C and δ2H from safranal by gas chromatography coupled with isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C/P-IRMS) and the concentration of saffron metabolites with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (UHPLC-DAD). The isotopic analysis highlighted a higher ratio of δ2H in synthetic safranal than in natural safranal; the mean values were 36‰ (+/− 40) and −210‰ (+/− 35), respectively. The δ13C between Iranian, Spanish and other saffron was significantly different and represents median values of −28.62‰, −30.12‰ and −30.70‰, respectively. Moreover, linear and quadratic discriminant analyses (LDA and QDA) were computed using the two isotope ratios of safranal and the saffron metabolites. A first QDA showed that trans-crocetin and the δ13C of safranal, picrocrocin, and crocin C3 concentrations clearly differentiated Iranian saffron from other origins. A second model identified δ13C, trans-crocetin, crocin C2, crocin C3, and picrocrocin as good predictors to discriminate saffron samples from Iran, Spain, or other origins, with a total ability score classification matrix of 100% and a prediction matrix of 82.5%. This combined approach may be a useful tool to authenticate the origin of unknown saffron.

ATR-FTIR spectroscopy combined with DNA barcoding and GC-MS to assess the quality and purity of saffron (Crocus sativus L.)

Fourier transform infrared spectra of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) samples were acquired using attenuated total reflectance (ATR-FTIR). The main objective of the study was to determine the chemical composition of 11 samples of saffron collected from different areas in Morocco using the chemometric analysis of ATR-FTIR fingerprints and identifying the adulterated saffron among samples bought from local markets in different countries (Spain, Iran, and Morocco). The the authenticity and the purity of saffron samples was validated through a molecular analysis (DNA barcoding coupled to sequencing) and chromatographic analysis GC-MS. The results of ATR-FTIR showed vibration intensities of six distinct fingerprint regions displaying statistically significant differences. The spectrum of the sample from Timjicht (Taznakht) showed typical bands due to the vibration in 3000–2800 cm-1 (the richest in carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids) and 1800–1725 cm-1 region (the richest in carbonyl and ester groups) and was classified a single subset in samples scatter plot. Then samples from Boulmane (S2), Ain Leuh (S3), Taliouine (S6), and Taznakht (S7-S8) were classified close to each other, which indicates the similarity in their vibration intensities mainly in the region of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, and esters. Similarities in terms of proteins and hydroxyl groups were revealed between the samples from El Mers (S11) and Taliouine (S1). Finally, the last sub-group contained samples from Ourika, Azilal and Ain Atia, which showed low composition in all components. Furthermore, to detect adulterated saffron from samples of unknown origin, a comparison of the ATR-FTIR spectra were carried out with spectra of pure saffron and results showed that the peaks at 1706, 1732, and 1225 cm-1 (linked to crocin which are present primarily in saffron) were absent in one sample (SI). Interestingly, the use of another plant species named Arrhenatherum elatius as materiel for saffron adulteration was confirmed by the molecular study (DNA barcoding) and chromatographic analysis GC-MS

Türkiye'de Safran (Crocus sativus L.) adı ile satılan bazı örneklerin Farmasötik Botanik açıdan değerlendirilmesi

Crocus sativus L. (Saffron, Fam. Iridaceae) is a medicinal, commercial, historical and economically important plant that has been used in the treatment of various diseases since ancient times. Saffron, which is generally used by the public to add flavor and color to dishes, is difficult to cultivate and harvest due to the use of only dried stigmas and is known as the most expensive spice in the world. The macroscopic and microscopic properties of the samples sold under the name "Saffron" from 10 different cities of Turkey, as well as the drying loss, foreign matter amount determination, total ash amount determination, color density determination, phosphomolybdic acid reaction and elongation determination analysis tests were conducted and their conformity with European Pharmacopoeia standards was investigated. In this study, saffron samples purchased from a local producer in Safranbolu (Standard 1) and grown by ourselves (Standard 2) were used. As a result of our study, it was determined by morphological and microscopic studies that samples 2 and 4 completely belonged to the Carthamus tinctorius L. (Safflower) plant. On the other hand, it has been revealed by the analyzes that the sample number six contains very little saffron stigma and mainly contains Safflower bulk flowers.

A Comprehensive Review of Minerals, Trace Elements, and Heavy Metals in Saffron.

Saffron is one of the most expensive spices in the world, and its popularity as a tasty food additive is spreading rapidly through many cultures and cuisines. Minerals and heavy metals are minor components found in saffron, which play a key role in the identification of the geographical origin, quality control, and food traceability, while they also affect human health. The chemical elements in saffron are measured using various analytical methods, such as techniques based on spectrometry or spectroscopy, including atomic emission spectrometry, atomic absorption spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The present study aimed to review the published articles about heavy metals and minerals in saffron across the world. To date, 64 chemical elements have been found in different types of saffron, which could be divided into three groups of macro-elements, trace elements, and heavy metals (trace elements with a lower gravity/greater than five times that of water and other inorganic sources). Furthermore, the chemical elements in the saffron samples of different countries have a wide range of concentrations. These differences may be affected by geographical conditions such as physicochemical properties of the soil, weather, and other environmental conditions like saffron cultivation and its genotype.

The menace of saffron adulteration: Low-cost rapid identification of fake look-alike saffron using Foldscope and machine learning technology.

Saffron authenticity is important for the saffron industry, consumers, food industry, and regulatory agencies. Herein we describe a combo of two novel methods to distinguish genuine saffron from fake in a user-friendly manner and without sophisticated instruments. A smartphone coupled with Foldscope was used to visualize characteristic features and distinguish “genuine” saffron from “fake.” Furthermore, destaining and staining agents were used to study the staining patterns. Toluidine blue staining pattern was distinct and easier to use as it stained the papillae and the margins deep purple, while its stain is lighter yellowish green toward the central axis. Further to automate the process, we tested and compared different machine learning-based classification approaches for performing the automated saffron classification into genuine or fake. We demonstrated that the deep learning-based models are efficient in learning the morphological features and classifying samples as either fake or genuine, making it much easier for end-users. This approach performed much better than conventional machine learning approaches (random forest and SVM), and the model achieved an accuracy of 99.5% and a precision of 99.3% on the test dataset. The process has increased the robustness and reliability of authenticating saffron samples. This is the first study that describes a customer-centric frugal science-based approach to creating an automated app to detect adulteration. Furthermore, a survey was conducted to assess saffron adulteration and quality. It revealed that only 40% of samples belonged to ISO Category I, while the average adulteration percentage in the remaining samples was 36.25%. After discarding the adulterants from crude samples, their quality parameters improved significantly, elevating these from ISO category III to Category II. Conversely, it also means that Categories II and III saffron are more prone to and favored for adulteration by fraudsters.

Effective Isolation of Picrocrocin and Crocins from Saffron: From HPTLC to Working Standard Obtaining.

Saffron is widely cultivated and used as a spice. Recently published data on the chemical composition and pharmacological potential of saffron determine its use in pharmacy and medicine. The proposed high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) method allows good separation of 11 analytes. The saffron quality (Iran, Ukraine, Spain, Morocco samples) assessment was based on the European Pharmacopoeia monograph and ISO 3632. The HPTLC method for the safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin quantification was proposed and validated. The crocins content in Ukrainian saffron was from 17.80% to 33.25%. Based on qualitative and quantitative assessment results, the saffron sample from Zaporizhzhia (Ukraine) had the highest compounds content and was chosen to obtain the working standards of picrocrocin and crocins (trans-4GG, trans-2G, trans-3Gg) by preparative chromatography. The compounds were isolated from lyophilized extract of saffron using a Symmetry Prep C18 column (300 × 19 mm × 7 µm), and identified by spectroscopic techniques (HPLC-DAD, UPLC-ESI-MS/MS). The purity of crocins and picrocrocin was more than 97%. A novel method proposed to obtain working standards is simple and reproducible for the routine analysis of saffron quality control.

Tracing the Geographical Origin of Moroccan Saffron by Mid-Infrared Spectroscopy and Multivariate Analysis

This work aims to investigate the potential of mid-infrared spectroscopy (MIR) and chemometrics algorithms for the determination of geographical origin and detection of adulteration of Moroccan saffron samples. First, the determination of the geographical origin of five saffron varieties was analyzed by linear discriminant analysis (PCA-LDA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). As a result, the developed models correctly classified saffron samples in a subset of external validation with 100% predictive ability. Next, partial least squares regression (PLS-R) was conducted to estimate the amount of adulterants (safflower) in the saffron samples. A good performance was found with Coefficient of Determination (R2) between 0.97 and 0.99. Compared to other techniques, the main advantage of the proposed methods are non-destructive, fast and sensitive which allows to achieve very precise and accurate results.