Saffron Fields Research Articles

Saffron Cultivation in Marginal Alpine Environments: How AMF Inoculation Modulates Yield and Bioactive Compounds

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) establish mutualistic symbiotic associations with plant roots and act as biofertilizers by enhancing plant nutrient and water uptake. Moreover, AMF colonization may influence the biosynthesis of plant bioactive compounds in medicinal and aromatic plants. There is limited information on AMF associations with Crocus sativus L. (saffron) roots and their effect on crop performances and spice quality. In the present work we verified the efficiency of root mycorrhization in potted conditions, and then we evaluated the yield and quality of the saffron produced in two Alpine sites during two cultivation cycles with the application of AMF. Two inocula were applied, either a single-species (Rhizophagus intraradices) or a multispecies mixture (R. intraradices and Funneliformis mosseae). The trial conducted in potted conditions confirmed that both AMF commercial inocula established symbiotic relationships with saffron roots. The multispecies inoculation yielded the highest content of arbuscules in colonized portions of the root (100%), while the single-species was slightly less (82.9%) and no AMF were recorded in untreated control corms. In open-field conditions, AMF colonization of the root systems, flower production, and saffron yields were monitored, and bioactive compounds contents and antioxidant activity in the dried spice were analyzed using spectrophotometry and high performance liquid chromatography. Overall, the saffron produced was high quality (ISO category) and had high contents of bioactive compounds, with very high total polyphenol content and elevated antioxidant activity. The use of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbionts as biostimulants positively affected saffron cultivation, improving the crop performances and the content of important nutraceutical compounds. In particular, the inoculum composed by R. intraradices and F. mosseae increased flower production and the saffron yield. R. intraradices alone enhanced the spice antioxidant activity and the content of bioactive compounds such as picrocrocin, crocin II, and quercitrin. Since saffron is the world’s highest priced spice, the increases in yield and quality obtained using AMF suggests that farms in marginal areas such as alpine sites can increase profitability by inoculating saffron fields with arbuscular mycorrhiza.

Effect of biofertilizers, biological control agents and soil amendments on the control of saffron corm rot (Crocus sativus L.)

Saffron corm rot caused by Fusarium monliforme var. intermedium, Fusarium oxysporum and F. gladioliis a serious threat to saffron cultivators of Jammu and Kashmir. About 46% of the soil in the saffron fields are infected with the said fungus and the infection is spreading steadily. Longer planting cycle (up to 15 years), primitive agronomic practices, monocropping of saffron, along with the use of non-graded corms and continual use of diseased material resulted in the frequent occurrence of corm rot diseases. Three biocontrol agents viz., Tricoderma viride, Tricodermaherzanium and Pseudomonas florescence having antagonistic activity against corm rot of saffron were used as seed treatment. Similarly three biofertilizers, viz., Azatobacter, Azospirillium and vermicompost were evaluated against corm rot of saffron. Mustard cake, Dal weed and Neem cake were used as soil amendments. Study carried over 39 on farm trials conducted over an area of about 1 ha. Confirmed efficacy of Tricoderma viride when used as a corm dresser in combination with vermicompost and Neem cake applied to the soil directly in control of saffron corm rot under two years planting cycle to the extent of 98%. The study has indicated that all the morphological, yield and yield attributing traits showed significant differences for all the treatments used in the experiment. Maximum corm yield (792.66 g m-2), number of daughter corms/mother corm (3.01), fresh flower weight (217.77 g plot-1) and saffron yield (7.96 kg ha-1) was obtained with the treatment combination of Tricoderma herzanium, Azospirillum spp. and Mustard cake.

Characterization of Bacteria Isolated from the Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Rhizosphere

Abstract One purpose of assessing the soil alive and active community is the identification of beneficial bacteria to use them as biological fertilizers, replacing or supplementing synthetic fertilizers. Such biofertilizers are predicted for the sustainability of agricultural production, especially for low input systems such as saffron fields. The aim of this work was to isolate and identify saffron rhizobacteria and to evaluate their possible effects on saffron growth. During 2013/14, some bacteria were isolated from the rhizosphere of the saffron plantations of different age in Gol village, Birjand, Iran. In total, 12 bacteria species were identified based on phenotypic traits and 16S rDNA sequences analysis. The strains were identified as B. subtilis, B. anthracis, B. cereus, B. megaterium, Bacillus sp., Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, P. putida, Escherichia coli, Pectobacterium sp. and Pantoea sp., with the dominant population belonging to the genus Bacillus. In the field study, inoculation of soil with these strains did not affect the leaf dry weight of the cultivated saffron, however, the strains of P. fluorescens increased the leaf area while P. fluorescens, Paenibacillus, Pectobacterium and B. megaterium increased the number of daughter corms and Azotobacter, B. cereus, B. subtilis and B. megaterium increased the corm weight. Our finding revealed that some bacteria present in the soil of perennial saffron plantations have a promising potential for developing as a plant growth promoting rhizobacteria.

Evaluation of weed flora and biodiversity indices in saffron fields (case study: Khorasan province)

Evaluation of weed flora and biodiversity indices in saffron fields (case study: Khorasan province)

Aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species from saffron field soils in the South Khorasan province of Iran

The aim of the present study was to isolate and identify Aspergillus species associated with saffron plants in the city of Birjand (South Khorasan Province, Iran) as well as to assess their aflatoxin B1 production. Sampling was performed during 2013–2014 crop season. Aspergillus species were isolated and purified using general and specific culture media. Growth rates and macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the isolates were determined using yeast extract, Czapek yeast extract, malt extract and creatine sucrose agar media at 25 and 37 °C. DNA was extracted by the modified CTAB method and beta-tubulin, calmodulin and internal transcribed spacer genes were amplified and sequenced. Phylogenetic position of the isolates was determined against other Aspergillus species. Thin layer chromatography was used to investigate the production of aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus isolates. Based on the morphological characteristics, shape and colour of the colonies, and sequencing results, the isolates belonged to Aspergillus terreus, A. flavus, A. flavipes and A. niger species. Only A. flavus isolates were aflatoxin B1 producers. We concluded that the soil of the studied saffron fields contained several species of Aspergillus, with A. flavus significantly affecting crop production through contamination of the crop by aflatoxin.

Native Bacillus amyloliquefaciens W2 as a potential biocontrol for Fusarium oxysporum R1 causing corm rot of Crocus sativus

Fusarium corm rot is the major destructive disease of Crocus sativus, a perennial herb whose stigma forms the commercially important spice “saffron”. In the present study we isolated a native Bacillus strain with antagonistic activity against a Fusarium oxysporum isolate causing the disease. Three fungi, Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani and Penicillium sp., were isolated from the corms showing classical symptoms of rot collected from saffron fields in the valley of Kashmir, India. The fungi were characterized using conidial morphology and molecular phylogeny. Among 400 bacterial isolates selected randomly from the rhizosphere and bulk soil of saffron fields, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain W2 was found effective against corm rot caused by F. oxysporum R1. Antagonistic activity of B. amyloliquefaciens W2 was confirmed in vitro using well diffusion and dual culture assay as well as in vivo by pot trials. The disease incidence in pot assays was 93 and 40 % in absence and presence of B. amyloliquefaciens W2 respectively. B. amyloliquefaciens W2 can be used as a potent biofungicide for corm rot diseases in C. sativus.

Draft Genome Sequence of Plant Growth-Promoting Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain W2 Associated with Crocus sativus (Saffron).

Bacillus sp. strain W2 is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium isolated from saffron fields of Kashmir, India. Here, we report the draft genome sequence (3.9 Mb) of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain W2 having 65 contigs (3, 997, 511 bp), 4,163 coding sequences, and an average 46.45% GC content. Despite the 99% identity of the 16S rRNA gene with that of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum FZB42, the genome comparison revealed that only 48.7% of the W2 genome has homology with that of FZB42.

Increased Miscarriage Rate in Female Farmers Working in Saffron Fields: A Possible Effect of Saffron Toxicity

Background: There is much debate about effects of medicinal plants such as saffron (Crocus sativus) on human health. Women are highly involved in farming and processing of this plant. This study is aimed at evaluating the saffron impacts on miscarriage rate of female farmers working in saffron fields. Methods: This was a prospective case-control study on pregnant female farmers during harvesting season of saffron in December 2005 to evaluate miscarriage rate among them. All pregnant women who were between the first and twentieth week of gestation and were participated in saffron harvesting and processing in previous years were studied. The subjects were divided into two age and gestational age-matched groups of cases and controls. The cases were prohibited from working in saffron fields and in return they were paid same as the average amount of their monthly income. They were trained not have any exposure to saffron and a team supervised them on their adherence during the study period. Nevertheless, they were free for working in other careers. On the other hand, the controls were allowed for working in the fields and processing saffron. Results: Forty-one subjects were included in case group and 38 subjects in control group. Median age of all subjects was 25 years. The groups were not significantly different from each other according to history of miscarriage and 2nd occupation. Four subjects experienced miscarriage that all of them belonged to control group having contact to saffron. None of cases had miscarriage. Using Fisher's exact test, it was found that miscarriage rate was significantly higher (10.6% vs. 0%, P = 0.03) among female farmers who had saffron exposure. Conclusion: Exposure to saffron may increase the risk of miscarriage. Hence, it is suggested that pregnant women avoid contact with considerable amounts of saffron especially for female farmers working in saffron fields.

West Delta Deep Marine — Offshore Mono Ethylene Glycol Injection

In 1999 INTECSEA (Previously INTEC) commenced a FEED study in a concession called West Delta Deep Marine (WDDM), offshore Egypt in the Mediterranean Sea. The development was to be operated by the Burullus Gas Company, a Joint Venture comprising BG Egypt, Edison Gas and EGPC (the Egyptian General Petroleum Company). Since that time Edison Gas have sold their share to PICL (Egypt) Corporation Ltd (Wholly owned by PETRONAS). The development was the first deepwater development offshore Egypt, an area with no experience in deepwater developments with little associated infrastructure. The development was also to be pioneering as it was, at that time, one of the longest tie-backs to shore at 90 km initially with the Scarab /Saffron fields. Since those early days, INTECSEA have continued working alongside Burullus Gas, delivering a number of Phases of the development, with the expansion being further, 105 km, from shore and in deeper water, 1024 m. This article describes our work associated with the need to provide reliable subsea Mono Ethylene Glycol (MEG) injection and some of the issues experienced from those early days to the present.

EFFECT OF PLANT DISTANCE ON FLOWER YIELD AND QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF FORAGE PRODUCTION OF SAFFRON (CROCUS SATIVUS) IN MASHHAD CONDITIONS

EFFECT OF PLANT DISTANCE ON FLOWER YIELD AND QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF FORAGE PRODUCTION OF SAFFRON (CROCUS SATIVUS) IN MASHHAD CONDITIONS

Soil seed bank and seedling populations of Hordeum murinum and Cardaria draba in saffron fields

Abstract Geostatistical techniques were used to characterize the spatial relationship between Hordeum murinum and Cardaria draba seedling and soil seed bank over the entire growing season of 2004–2005 in three saffron (Crocus sativus) fields, located in Southern Khorasan (33°N latitude, 57°E longitude), Iran. The maps of H. murinum seed bank density corresponded moderately to those seedling density in a and strongly to those in b and c fields. The emergence percentage of C. draba was higher than for H. murinum in all fields. Semivariograms showed spatial autocorrelation in seed bank and seedling populations of H. murinum and C. draba in all fields. Grey-scale field maps of C. draba seed banks corresponded visually to maps of seedling populations and could have been used to target control efforts, but visual correspondence between H. murinum seed bank and seedling maps was poor.

Vegetative compatibility grouping of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli from saffron

Fusarium corm rot of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), incited by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. gladioli, causes severe yield losses in Italy. Major symptoms during flowering (October–November) include yellowing and wilting of shoots, basal stem rot and corm rot. Sixty-four isolates of F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli, obtained from infected saffron crops located in Italy (Abruzzi, Tuscany and Umbria) and in Spain, were characterized by pathogenicity and vegetative compatibility. Chlorate-resistant, nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants were used to determine vegetative compatibility among the isolates of the pathogen with the aim of examining the genetic relatedness among populations from different locations. All the isolates belonged to vegetative compatibility group 0340. Since saffron shares susceptibility to F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli with other ornamental plants of the Iridaceae (Crocus, Gladiolus, Iris and Ixia), it is likely that a clone of the pathogen (VCG 0340) was introduced with other hosts and is responsible for the disease outbreak observed on saffron in Italy. Alternatively, or additionally, the clone of F. oxysporum f. sp. gladioli causing disease on saffron in other countries may have spread to the saffron fields in Italy through the import and dispersal of infested propagation material.

Application of Fertilizers for Increased Saffron Yield

Research was undertaken to determine the response of newly planted saffron to the application of different levels of nitrogen (0, 50 and 100 kg N · ha−1 · year−1), phosphorus (0, 25, and 50 kg P2O5 · ha−1 · year−1), and composted cow manure (0, 20, and 40 tons · ha−1 · year−1) in terms of fresh flower weight (FFW), saffron yield (SY) and leaf biomass. The experiments were conducted in Birjand, and Ghaen, Khorasan province, Iran, from 1991 to 1993. Significant differences were found between the two locations and among the years within each location for FFW and SY. Averaged over all treatments and years, mean values for FFW and SY were 644.3 and 9.1 kg · ha−1, respectively, at Birjand, and 296.0 and 3.7 kg · ha−1, respectively, at Ghaen. At Birjand, mean FFW in the three consecutive years was 229.0, 796.2, and 907.8 kg · ha−1 and mean SY was 3.4, 10.6, and 13.4 kg · ha−1. The corresponding means at Ghaen were 87.5, 225.9, and 574.7 kg · ha−1 for FFW and 1.3, 3.2, and 6.7 kg · ha−1 for SY. Simple correlation coefficients between FFW and SY were positive and highly significant. At both locations, FFW and SY increased significantly from year to year. The rate of increase, however, decreased with the age of the saffron field because of overcrowding of new corms. Different combinations of fertilizers had either a negative or nonsignificant effect on FFW and SY. The application of phosphorus fertilizer did not result in increased FFW and SY. The application of 40 tons · ha−1 of cow manure in the first year followed by no fertilizer in the second year and by 20 tons · ha−1 in the third year increased FFW and SY at Birjand. The use of 100 kg · ha−1 nitrogen only in the third year also increased FFW and SY at Birjand. At Ghaen, only the application of 50 kg · ha−1 nitrogen in the third year resulted in increased FFW and SY.

Cytology of the TetraploidAllium RubellumBieb.

SUMMARYAllium rubellum Bieb. so far known as a diploid and a triploid has been collected in the tetraploid form (2 n=4x=32) from the saffron fields and mud built house tops of Kashmir valley. Tetraploidy has caused gigantism in the size of the plant and the flower head. Root tip cells bear 32 chromosomes with median or submedian centromeres. Eight of the chromosomes are secondarily constricted. These do not match into pairs. Meiosis is characterized by a high frequency of quadrivalents ranging in number from 8 (maximum number possible) to 2 per cell. Anaphase distribution is regular in almost half of the microspore mother cells and only slightly irregular (17:15) in the rest. The subsequent course of meiosis is perfectly normal and as a consequence healthy pollen grains are produced. Though the high quadrivalent frequency points to autopolyploidy, in view of the karyotypic heteromorphicity the taxon seems to have arisen through hybridization at the varietal level.