Safety Of Vulnerable Road Users Research Articles

Method to Assess and Enhance Vulnerable Road User Safety during Impact Loading

Every year approximately 1.35 million people die as a consequence of road accidents. Almost 50% of road fatalities are vulnerable road users (VRUs). This research reviews the history of traffic safety for VRUs, presents an interesting insight into the statistics and evaluates the current legislation in Europe for pedestrians, cyclists, children on bicycle-mounted seats and motorcyclists in terms of impact situations and applied criteria. This enabled the author to have a better perspective on how the VRUs’ safety is currently verified. Furthermore, the VRU safety requirements are contrasted with the author’s research, which is mainly focused on VRU’s head biomechanics and kinematics. Finally, a new coherent method is presented, which encompasses the sub-groups of VRUs and proposes some improvements to both the regulations as well as technical countermeasures to mitigate the injuries during an impact. This study highlights the importance of numerical methods, which can serve as a powerful tool to study VRUs’ head injuries and kinematics.

Safe Streets for All? Analyzing Infrastructural Response to Pedestrian and Cyclist Crashes in New York City, 2009–2018

Although cycling and walking carry a host of benefits, neither the benefits nor the risks—those of injury and fatality—are equitably distributed. Although research has shown higher income and gentrified areas have better access to protected bicycle infrastructure, low-income and communities of color are overrepresented in severe injury and fatality rates among cyclists and pedestrians. This research employs temporal, spatial, and socio-economic data to study the distribution of cycling infrastructure and safety improvements in New York City between income groups and boroughs. The integration of temporal data representing pedestrian and cyclist injury and fatality, and infrastructure installation date, point toward the establishment of time trends in the relationship between traffic violence and safety investment. Socio-economic factors are analyzed to see how this relationship and access more generally are related to income. We observed that lower-income groups continue to be overrepresented in crashes across New York’s boroughs, with the exception of Manhattan, and although crash rates have fallen in the years since 2009, these gains do not improve the position of lower-income groups, which continue to experience a disproportionate share of fatalities and injuries. However, longitudinal multi-level logistic models controlling for reported pedestrian and cyclist injuries in previous years uncovered additional relationships between socio-economic status, injuries, location, and safety investment. For example, the implementation of safety improvements and speed humps are significantly related to reported injuries in previous years; this finding supports the city’s stated goals of targeting improvements to areas most in need of improved safety for vulnerable road users.

Investigating safety of vulnerable road users in selected EU countries

Problem: Vulnerable road users comprise over half of all road accident victims in the EU and their safety situation is not improving as fast as for motorists. The paper examines factors affecting fatality risk of pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists, and moped riders in seven EU countries using data from CARE database. Method: Comparing accident severity indicators between countries is problematic because of data quality issues, different degree of underreporting, and different exposure levels. To avoid bias arising from these issues, fatality risk is modeled with binary logistic regression. Risk factors considered include accident location by area type, junction type, and traffic control, as well as lighting condition. Results are presented as odds ratios of fatal accident outcome in different countries under specific circumstances compared to reference conditions. It is shown that the error in OR values due to underreporting is small. Results and discussion: Wide confidence intervals of the odds ratios in some countries confirm problems with accident data quality. Fatality risk is always higher for non-urban versus urban area and for darkness versus daylight conditions, but the odds ratios are different for different countries. Inconsistent results are obtained for accident location with respect to junction and its control type. Possible reasons for these differences are suggested and discussed. Practical applications: The proposed method avoids the data quality bias of accident severity indicators, thus, it can be used in international comparisons of vulnerable road user accidents. The article findings also support the concept of changes in legislation, such as reducing the speed limit in urban areas in Poland at night. Generally, the experience of countries with low VRU fatality risk identified in the article can be transferred to those with a higher risk.

Numerical Reconstruction of Traumatic Brain Injury in Skiing and Snowboarding.

Proper evaluation of ski helmet designs and safety standards should rely on head impact conditions involved in skiing and snowboarding head injuries. To study these impacts, main crash scenarios involving head injuries are numerically replicated. Multibody models of skiers and snowboarders were developed to investigate five common crash scenarios involved in traumatic brain injury: forward and sideways skiing falls, snowboarding backward falls, collisions between users and collisions with obstacles. For each scenario, the influence of crash conditions on head impact (location, speed, linear and rotational accelerations) and risk of injury are evaluated. Crash conditions were initial velocity, user height, position and approach angle, slope steepness, obstacles, and snow stiffness. One thousand one hundred forty-nine crashes were simulated and three significant levels of impact conditions were discriminated over the investigated crash scenarios: 1) the smallest normal-to-slope impact velocities (6 km·h; 22 km·h) and peak linear accelerations (42g; 75g) were obtained during forward and sideways skiing falls; 2) snowboarding backward falls and collisions between users were associated with high normal-to-surface impact velocities (26 km·h; 32 km·h) and head accelerations (80g; 149g) above one published threshold for mild traumatic brain injury but below the pass/fail criteria of helmet standard tests; 3) collisions with obstacles were associated with high normal-to-surface impact velocities (19 km·h; 35 km·h) and the highest head accelerations (626g; 1885g). Current impact conditions of helmet standard evaluations consistently replicate collisions with obstacles, but need to be revised to better reflect other significant crash scenarios leading to traumatic brain injury.

Assessing safety of shared space using cyclist-pedestrian interactions and automated video conflict analysis

In the past decade, transportation planners worldwide have been incorporating shared space design elements as a way of creating pedestrian-friendly places. Streets incorporating shared-space principles tend to have reduced vehicle speeds and increased safety for vulnerable road users. In North American cities, a shared-space approach is rarely applied to non-motorized environments such as pedestrian malls, campuses, and parks. As cyclists and pedestrians travel at relatively slow speeds, there is an opportunity to provide safe infrastructure to both through non-motorized shared spaces. Yet, little empirical evidence exists concerning the risk of pedestrian-cyclist collisions in shared spaces. Existing surrogate methods are either difficult to automate or insufficient to describe interactions between vulnerable users. To address this research gap, a methodological framework is proposed based on the analysis of semi-automated pedestrian-cyclist interactions and the integration of surrogate methods in non-motorized shared space. Several proposed surrogate safety measures (SSMs) including cyclist speed, angle of approach, pedestrian density, and post-encroachment time are analysed to estimate the risk of pedestrian-cyclist interactions. The methodology is then applied to a case study on the McGill University campus in Montreal, Canada, where cyclists and pedestrians coexist. User trajectories are automatically extracted using a computer vision software to yield 2739 pedestrian-cyclist interactions for analysis. The derived SSMs demonstrate adequate levels of safety. For example, speed and pedestrian density are shown to be negatively correlated, while conflict rate and density are positively correlated. Statistical differences are shown between conflict types defined based on intersecting angle and road user configuration.

The Reality of Virtual Reality: A Comparison of Pedestrian Behavior in Real and Virtual Environments

Virtual reality (VR) can be a very effective tool to evaluate built environment to support improvement of pedestrian and other vulnerable road user safety. However, in order to draw actionable conclusions from VR it is important to understand the degree to which pedestrians’ perceptions and behaviors match across real and virtual environments. In this study, participants experienced equivalent real and virtual environments and performed similar tasks in each. Tasks included pedestrian’ intention to cross, estimation of speed and distance of an approaching vehicle, and the perceived safety and risk of crossing a road. Pedestrians’ presence was also measured in all environments. Result showed that there were no differences between the real and virtual environments for most of the tasks. Significant differences between real and virtual environments were observed in the estimation of speed and measures of presence. These results have important implications for using VR as tool to evaluate pedestrian safety in built environments.

Drivers' Visual Search Behavior Toward Vulnerable Road Users at Junctions as a Function of Cycling Experience.

Objectives:The current study investigated the behavior and visual attention of two groups of drivers with differing pedal cycling experience (pedal cyclists and nonpedal cyclists) towards vulnerable road users at junctions in a driving simulator.Background:Pedal cyclists and motorcyclists are involved in a disproportionate number of crashes given the distance they travel, with a high proportion of these crashes occurring at junctions. Many studies have found that car drivers who also hold a motorcycle license have increased awareness towards motorcycles.Methods:The task involved approaching a T-junction and turning right when it was deemed to be safe. In Study 1, the junction was controlled by a give way sign, and in Study 2, the junction was controlled by a stop sign. Each T-junction contained a target vehicle (car, motorcycle, or pedal cycle), approaching from a near, medium, or far distance from the junction.Results:Participants did not look at pedal cycles approaching from a far distance for as long as they looked at approaching motorcycles and cars, despite all vehicles travelling at identical speeds. No differences were found between pedal cyclists and nonpedal cyclists on any visual attention measures, indicating that pedal cycling experience was not associated with differences in drivers’ attention toward pedal cycles.Conclusions:Findings have implications for road safety, demonstrating subtle differences in drivers’ everyday visual attention toward differing vehicle types.Applications:This research has the potential to inform the development of in-car technical assistive systems, improving the safety of vulnerable road users at junctions.

Walking the talk: Comparing pedestrian ‘activity as imagined’ with ‘activity as done’

The safety of vulnerable road users, including pedestrians, is an important issue worldwide. In line with the shift towards systems thinking in transport safety, the aim of this study was to compare the normal performance of pedestrians as they navigate the road system with that imagined by road system managers to gain insights into how safety management can be improved for this vulnerable road user group. The Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork framework was used to compare pedestrian activity ‘as imagined’ and ‘as done’ at signalised road intersections and railway level crossings. Data regarding ‘activity as imagined’ was derived from documentation review, and data on ‘activity as done’ was derived from a semi-naturalistic study of ten participants. It is concluded that in both environments pedestrians exhibited more diversity and variability than anticipated by system managers. Insights for improving the design of the road environment for pedestrians are provided. Further, it is argued that wider changes to the processes used in the design and management of road systems are needed.

A problem of the safety of vulnerable road users in Montenegro

ABSTRACTResearch on the safety of vulnerable road users in Montenegro and in the European Union found that pedestrian fatality rates are the highest, followed by motorcyclists, and then cyclists. In the European Union, fatality rates are decreasing for all groups of vulnerable road users, while in Montenegro the fatality rate of pedestrians and cyclists is decreasing. The safety improvement for vulnerable road users is less successful than that for people in vehicles. Pedestrians in Montenegro are at the highest risk in the European Union. In Montenegro, pedestrians and cyclists are most vulnerable on the streets in the most developed settlements, while moped riders and motorcyclists are most vulnerable on the main roads. The implementation of control measures led to a turning point, and further improvement was obtained after implementing safety campaigns; for greater improvements, it will be necessary to establish local institutions for traffic safety management.

Mechanisms underlying cognitive conspicuity in the detection of cyclists by car drivers

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to evaluate the visibility of cyclists for motorists in a simulated car driving task. BackgroundIn several cases involving collisions between cars and cyclists, car drivers failed to detect the latter in time to avoid collision because of their low conspicuity. Method2 groups of motorists (29.2 years old), including 12 cyclist-motorists and 13 non-cyclist-motorists, performed a vulnerable road user detection task in a car-driving simulator. They had to detect cyclists and pedestrians in an urban setting and evaluate the realism of the cyclists, the traffic, the city, the infrastructure, the car driven and the situations. Cyclists appeared in critical situations derived from previous accounts given by injured cyclists and from cyclists’ observations in real-life situations. Cyclist’s levels of visibility for car drivers were either high or low in these situations according to the cyclists. ResultsRealism scores were similar and high in both groups. Cyclist-motorists had fewer collisions with cyclists and detected cyclists at a greater distance in all situations, irrespective of cyclist visibility. Several mechanisms underlying the cognitive conspicuity of cyclists for car drivers were considered. ConclusionThe attentional selection of a cyclist in the road environment during car driving depends on top-down processing. ApplicationWe consider the practical implications of these results for the safety of vulnerable road users and future directions of research.

Quantifying the effectiveness of ITS in improving safety of VRUs

This paper presents the results of a safety impact assessment, providing quantitative estimates of the safety impacts of ten intelligent transport systems (ITS) which were designed to improve safety, mobility and comfort of vulnerable road users (VRUs). The evaluation method originally developed to assess safety impacts of ITS for cars was now adapted for assessing safety impacts of ITS for VRUs. The main results of the assessment showed that nine ITS included in the quantitative safety impact assessment affected traffic safety in a positive way by preventing fatalities and injuries. At full penetration the highest effects were obtained for Pedestrian and Cyclists Detection System + Emergency Braking (PCDS+EBR), VRU Beacon System (VBS) and Intersection Safety (INS). The estimates for PCDS+EBR showed the maximum reduction of 7.5% on all road fatalities at full penetration, which comes down to an medium estimate of around 1,900 fatalities saved per year in the EU-28 when applying the 2012 accident data and 100% penetration rate. The results regarding future scenarios showed the highest effects in number of reduced fatalities per system in the European Union (EU)-28 in 2030 for PCDS+EBR (-200 fatalities), Blind Spot Detection (BSD) (-22 fatalities), INS (-20 fatalities) and VBS (-11 fatalities). © 2017 The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

ITS‐G5 performance improvement and evaluation for vulnerable road user safety services

Cooperative intelligent transportation system (C-ITS) allows to improve safety of vehicles through communications between vehicles and infrastructure. C-ITS may also improve the safety of vulnerable road users (VRUs), but work on this issue is still in an early stage. ITS-G5 (IEEE 802.11p), the main technology for vehicle-to-vehicle time-critical communications, allows to deliver safety information over a rather long range with low latency, but obstacles in the link path and a large amount of vehicles sending at the same time may reduce performance. In this study, the authors assess and optimise the performance of ITS-G5 for time-critical safety conflict scenarios between vehicles and VRUs. The authors have tested various non-line-of-sight (NLOS) scenarios in urban environments and line-of-sight (LOS) simulations to support C-ITS message prioritisation and scalability with different amount of vehicles. Example use cases with NLOS include pedestrians crossing streets from behind objects, and low-visibility scenarios, e.g. when VRU is behind a vehicle, behind a queue of vehicles, between vehicles, behind trees/bushes or behind a building. The LOS simulations utilise fuzzy weighted queueing mechanism for congestion control to overcome the packet losses and for data prioritisation. Based on these results, the applicability of ITS-G5 for VRU applications is assessed and performance improved.

Risk assessment methodologies for pedestrian crossings without traffic lights – Warsaw case study – pedestrian safety assessment

Based on data from 2015 [1], it was found that 31% of all fatalities in road accidents in Poland were pedestrians. In places accessible to pedestrian traffic 74.2% of total accidents involving pedestrians were recorded. Approximately 53.9% of accidents involving pedestrians take place in the proximity of pedestrian crossings. In the context of improving the safety of vulnerable road users, an assessment of the condition of infrastructure in this sensitive area is very important. Warsaw took up the challenge of a comprehensive assessment of pedestrian crossings in determining the level of road safety and lighting conditions. Research covered pedestrian crossings without traffic lights in three central districts of the city. The work included field research by teams of experts analysing the geometry of pedestrian crossings, their environment and user behaviour. To complete the task, methodologies for assessing risks to pedestrian safety were developed. In this article the authors have attempted to systematise a description of the method of pedestrian safety assessment in the area of pedestrian crossings.

Implementation and Evaluation of a Cooperative Vehicle-to-Pedestrian Safety Application

While the development of Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) safety applications based on Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) has been extensively undergoing standardization for more than a decade, such applications are extremely missing for Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs). Nonexistence of collaborative systems between VRUs and vehicles was the main reason for this lack of attention. Recent developments in Wi-Fi Direct and DSRC-enabled smartphones are changing this perspective. Leveraging the existing V2V platforms, we propose a new framework using a DSRC-enabled smartphone to extend safety benefits to VRUs. The interoperability of applications between vehicles and portable DSRC enabled devices is achieved through the SAE J2735 Personal Safety Message (PSM). However, considering the fact that VRU movement dynamics, response times, and crash scenarios are fundamentally different from vehicles, a specific framework should be designed for VRU safety applications to study their performance. In this article, we first propose an end-to-end Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) framework to provide situational awareness and hazard detection based on the most common and injury-prone crash scenarios. The details of our VRU safety module, including target classification and collision detection algorithms, are explained next. Furthermore, we propose and evaluate a mitigating solution for congestion and power consumption issues in such systems. Finally, the whole system is implemented and analyzed for realistic crash scenarios.

Problems with Assessing Safety of Vulnerable Road Users Based on Traffic Accident Data

AbstractThe problem of poor quality of traffic accident data assembled in national databases has been addressed in European project InDeV. Vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists and moped riders) are especially affected by underreporting of accidents and misreporting of injury severity. Analyses of data from the European CARE database shows differences between countries in accident number trends as well as in fatality and injury rates which are difficult to explain. A survey of InDeV project partners from 7 EU countries helped to identify differences in their countries in accident and injury definitions as well as in reporting and data checking procedures. Measures to improve the quality of accident data are proposed such as including pedestrian falls in accident statistics, precisely defining minimum injury and combining police accident records with hospital data.

Fusion of Perception and V2P Communication Systems for the Safety of Vulnerable Road Users

With cooperative intelligent transportation systems, vulnerable road users (VRU) safety can be enhanced by multiple means. On the one hand, perception systems are based on embedded sensors to protect VRUs. However, such systems may fail due to the sensors’ visibility conditions and imprecision. On the other hand, vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communication can contribute to the VRU safety by allowing vehicles and pedestrians to exchange information. This solution is, however, largely affected by the reliability of the exchanged information, which most generally is the GPS data. Since perception and communication have complementary features, we can expect that a fusion between these two approaches can be a solution to the VRU safety. In this paper, we propose a cooperative system that combines the outputs of communication and perception. After introducing theoretical models of both individual approaches, we develop a probabilistic association between perception and V2P communication information by means of multi-hypothesis tracking. Experimental studies are conducted to demonstrate the applicability of this approach in real-world environments. Our results show that the cooperative VRU protection system can benefit of the redundancy coming from the perception and communication technologies both in line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS conditions. We establish that the performances of this system are influenced by the classification performances of the perception system and by the accuracy of the GPS positioning transmitted by the communication system.

Improving safety of vulnerable road users: Effectiveness of environment and in-vehicle warning systems at intermodal interchanges

ABSTRACTIn certain environments pedestrians are at an increased risk for pedestrian-vehicle crashes. Sites such as bus terminals, where there is an increase in foot traffic, create a higher risk for pedestrian injuries and fatalities. The current study investigates the effectiveness of structural and in-vehicle interventions for modifying driver behavior as drivers approach, pass through, and depart from an urban bus terminal. The impact of facility structural elements (pedestrian crossing signs, marked crosswalks, and sidewalks) and an in-vehicle pedestrian warning system was evaluated using the Center for Advanced Vehicular Systems driving simulator. Thirty-seven participants completed an urban driving task in a high-fidelity driving simulator. Driver speed and lane position were evaluated. An in-vehicle alarm indicating “high pedestrian areas” led to reduced driver speed, but drivers shifted closer to the shoulder (and pedestrians). Marked crosswalks had no observed effect on driver speed or vehicle controls but also led to drivers positioning themselves closer to the shoulder. Drivers exhibited risk-compensation behaviors by driving faster and closer to shoulders when sidewalks were present. Pedestrian crossing signals led to reduced driver speed. The authors recommend the placement of signed crosswalks mid-street where there is high pedestrian traffic.

Fatal and serious injuries related to vulnerable road users in Canada

IntroductionThe goals of this study were to analyze possible trends of fatal and serious injuries related to vulnerable road users in Canada (pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists) from 1990 to 2012 and the role of alcohol and drugs in these cases. Drugs have rarely been documented with respect to vulnerable road users. MethodThe Traffic Injury Research Foundation's National Fatality and Serious Injury Databases and the Public Health Agency of Canada's Canadian Hospitals Injury Reporting and Prevention Program databases were used. Numbers and rates of fatalities and serious injuries among vulnerable road users were analyzed and regression models were used to assess changes over time. ResultsThe analyses show that while the absolute number of fatalities and the rate per 100,000 population among vulnerable road users may be decreasing, no such trends are apparent when looking at the proportions of these road user fatalities out of all motor-vehicle fatalities. The trend for the proportion of motorcyclist fatalities is significantly increasing (coef.=0.16, p<0.001). The elderly (76years or older) are overrepresented among pedestrian fatalities, and serious injuries (they represent 18.5% of all pedestrian fatalities but only 5.8% of the population), while those 15years or younger are overrepresented among cyclists (they represent 23.3% of cyclist fatalities but 19.5% of the population), and those 16 to 25years old are overrepresented among motorcyclists (27.2% of motorcyclists fatalities and 13.6% of population). Alcohol and drug use among fatally injured vulnerable road users were significant problems, especially among pedestrians. Among fatally injured pedestrians tested for alcohol and drugs, 39.7% and 43.4% tested positive, respectively. ConclusionsWith the promotion of walking and cycling as forms of exercise and the popularity of motorcycling, the safety of vulnerable road users is an important issue. The results corroborate previous research and extend our understanding about the influence of alcohol and drugs in vulnerable road user injuries. Practical applicationsThese findings can help better inform prevention and mitigation initiatives for vulnerable road users.

The combined effect of vehicle frontal design, speed reduction, autonomous emergency braking and helmet use in reducing real life bicycle injuries

Vulnerable road users as bicyclists and pedestrians account for a significant share of fatalities and serious injuries in the road transport system. Traditionally, the protection for bicyclists has been addressed by speed management and separating vulnerable road users from motorized traffic. Also, the use of bicycle helmet has been prompted and regulated in some countries. Pedestrian protection by improving the car fontal design has been around since the late 1990s and has proven to be effective in reducing injury risk on pedestrians (Strandroth et al., 2011) as well as on bicyclists (Strandroth et al., 2014). Pedestrian detection with Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB) has also been introduced on the market to prevent and mitigate pedestrian and bicyclist injuries. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of the different interventions promoting safety for vulnerable road users, and an additional purpose was to look at the combined effect of the interventions. Swedish emergency hospital reports from approximately 2000 bicyclists and 1200 pedestrians between Jan 1st 2003 and March 2014 were included in the study. Hospital reports including injury diagnosis were combined with police data and the vehicle registry in order to obtain detailed vehicle information. Euro NCAP pedestrian test score, speed limit restriction and helmet use was correlated with real-life pedestrian and bicyclist injuries. The results showed that on pedestrians, large injury reductions were found comparing low scoring cars (1–9p) in the Euro NCAP pedestrian test to high scoring cars (>18p). Also for bicyclists significant injury reductions were found. Focusing on bicyclist’s injury level, large reductions were found on all body regions, with the highest reduction on head injuries. The effect of speed limit restriction showed few statistically significant results, although across both pedestrian and bicyclist injuries the trends showed overall small but positive effects. The effect of helmet use on bicyclist injuries was investigated both on individual level and on head injury level. Helmet showed to significantly reduce the risk of head injuries. However, on individual level, the results were quiet conflicting, and only on mRPMI10+ level a positive and statistically significant reduction was found. The calculated combined effect of speed-reduction, helmet-use and car frontal design was 79%. Also, preliminary calculations, based on a limited number of cases, and including both bicyclists and pedestrians, showed that when adding the effect of AEB, the risk of long-term impairment decreased by more than 90%.

The effects of traffic wardens on the red-light infringement behavior of vulnerable road users

In some Chinese cities, traffic wardens are employed to maintain traffic order at the intersections with a high mixed traffic flow in peak hours. The main work of a traffic warden is to advise pedestrians and riders to wait at the appropriate area during red light periods. In many other countries, there are also traffic wardens at the areas with dense crowds or vehicles, such as at some large parking lots near parks and shopping malls. This paper investigated the effects of traffic wardens on the crossing behavior of pedestrians, cyclists and electric bike riders at signalized intersections. A total of 795 samples with traffic wardens and 773 samples without traffic wardens at intersections in Beijing, China were observed. Logistic regression and multivariate analysis of variance were used to test the effect of traffic wardens on the red-light crossing behavior. The results indicated that the presence of traffic wardens would significantly reduce by 21% red-light infringement behavior of vulnerable road users. However, the effects of traffic wardens were different among different groups. The effect of traffic wardens on reducing the violation rate for pedestrians was smaller compared to cyclists and electric bike riders (8% vs. 23% and 27%, respectively). The effect of traffic wardens was significant for the individuals approaching straight ahead the intersection, while it was not significant for the individuals approaching from the left and right sides of the observed direction. The possible reasons for the different effects and some practical countermeasures to reduce red light infringement were discussed. This study provides insights into the effects of traffic wardens on enhancing the safety of vulnerable road users under mixed traffic conditions. It is useful for the administrators to evaluate the supervision performance of traffic wardens and make informed decisions to employ traffic wardens at locations with dense crowds or vehicles.