Safe Water Sources Research Articles

The association between acute malnutrition and water, sanitation, and hygiene among children aged 6-59months in rural Ethiopia.

The causes of acute malnutrition-or "wasting"-are complex, and a better understanding of the underlying drivers is necessary in order to design effective interventions. Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) practices may play a fundamental role in acute malnutrition, but more research is needed to confirm this relationship. We investigated the association between WASH practices and acute malnutrition among children 6 to 59months of age in rural Ethiopia, making use of the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. Descriptive statistics were used to assess the WASH status of all rural children. Bivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to assess associations between nutritional status and WASH. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to adjust for confounders. A total of 7,209 children were included in the analysis, of which 867 (12.0%) were acutely malnourished. Proper toilet facilities (AOR=0.63, 95% CI [0.46, 0.86]) and a water source close to home (AOR=0.71, 95% CI [0.61, 0.83]) were associated with a lower prevalence of wasting. A safe water source for drinking (COR=1.03, 95% CI [0.89, 1.19]) and a safe disposal of the child's stool (AOR=0.97, 95% CI [0.84, 1.13]) were not significantly associated with acute malnutrition. These results suggest that WASH practices are related to acute malnutrition. Future studies-in particular intervention studies-should investigate whether improving WASH practices is effective in reducing malnutrition in infants and young children.

Groundwater potential in Sierra Leone

Groundwater is a major source of safe drinking water throughout Africa. Despite this, little quantitative information on aquifers potential is known in many countries. Sierra Leone has annual precipitation rates of as much of 5000 mm/yr and a capillary net of surface streams, but the hydrogeological aspect was never taken into serious consideration. Between 2016 and 2017, Hydro Nova (USA) conducted an extensive survey on all existing hydrogeological data in the country. The flagship product of this study was the Hydrogeologic Atlas of Sierra Leone, a series of 20 maps complemented with textual notes, published in official digital and hardcopy formats. The project showed that the majority of the 28900 wells, from the national survey, are located in unconfined aquifers of limited extent and of three different types: perched, along large river banks, porous, widely distributed across the country and along the coast and fractured, in the crystalline basement. The latter are generally deep and underlying the surface formation in the lateritic soils. The water table flows from NE to SW following the main water courses and is generally correlated to the topography. The crystalline basement is the common layer at the bottom of the aquifer at depth of 15-80 m. Well yield is normally in the range of 0.3-1.5 l/s and exceptionally 3-6 l/s. Transmissivity is also low (2-3 m2 /d). As a consequence many boreholes must remain unpumped, for some hours, to recover an exploitable water level. The entire report and other publications related to this paper can be accessed via the following link: http://www.salgrid.org

Impactos do rompimento da barragem de Mariana na qualidade da água do rio Doce

The Fundao dam failure on 5 November 2015 launched into the environment thirty-five million m³ of iron ore tailings, affecting the quality, turbidity, physicochemical parameters and the concentration of metals in the water due to the volume of suspended solids. Considering the importance of water quality for survival and for human and animal health, this article makes use of time series of concentration of toxic metals in the Doce River, covering pre and post disaster. Despite the identification of periods of greater and lesser toxicity due to the temporal distancing of the disaster occurrence, our results show a fast return to pre-disaster levels for the parameters, which were already above the legal threshold. Because of the need to ensure a safe water source for animal and human consumption, concentration of toxic metals should continue to be the focus of attention in the conventional water treatment process.

Increasing the regular use of safe water kiosk through collective psychological ownership: A mediation analysis

Unsafe water consumption is the environmental risk factor in sub-Saharan Africa contributing most to premature death. In urban slums and dispersed rural communities, where access to safe water is especially limited, water kiosks are a relevant safe water source. However, irregular use challenges their operational viability and may cause discontinuation. The present study investigated collective psychological ownership for the kiosk as a potential factor to increase regular kiosk use. Data were collected cross-sectionally in one urban and two rural kiosk sites through interviews in study households (N = 205) and analyzed by path analysis. Involvement in decision-making related to the kiosks explained collective psychological ownership for the kiosks. Collective psychological ownership, in turn, explained self-reported kiosk use through social-cognitive factors. The results emphasize the importance of community involvement in decisions related to kiosk installation and maintenance because it may contribute to regular kiosk use.

Shigella infection in children under 5 years old in western French Guiana.

French Guiana, a tropical country, is characterised by a young and multi-ethnic population. Difficulties in accessing safe water sources lead to outbreaks of gastroenteritis. The objectives of this study were (1) to describe the microbiological profile of shigella strains isolated in western French Guiana, including antimicrobial susceptibility and the distribution of strains in terms of species and serotypes and (2) to estimate the incidence of shigellosis in children under 5 years old. A retrospective observational study was conducted of 213 cases of shigellosis diagnosed in the biology department of the hospital centre for western French Guiana between 2000 and 2012 in children under 5 years old. The serogroups (formerly known as species) that predominates in French Guiana was Shigella flexneri. No resistance was observed to fluoroquinolones or to third-generation cephalosporins. The average incidence of shigellosis in children under 5 years old in western French Guiana was estimated at 189.6 cases per 100 000 inhabitants per year. Shigellosis is a public health problem in western French Guiana. These infections suggest the difficulties in accessing safe water sources and the lack of public sanitation. A quadrivalent vaccine containing Shigella sonnei and three serotypes of S. flexneri (S. flexneri 2a, 3a and 6) could provide broad coverage against shigella infections.

PureWater Colorado demo project uses Xylem technology

Xylem Inc is providing water technology solutions to the PureWater Colorado Demonstration Project, which aims to demonstrate direct potable reuse (DPR) as a safe, reliable and sustainable drinking water source.

English

To improve water quality, there should be a mechanism of keeping safe water source from chemical contaminants in an effective and protective way through the application of regular checkup and with interventions by taking exact measure periodically before it is supplied for usage. The intention of this research is aimed at determining the level of common cations, anions, heavy metals and physical parameters in drinking water supply system in, Konso and its surrounding area, Southwestern Ethiopia. Water samples were collected from 23 different locations in the area where there is a hand pump or motorized supply system that is used for drinking purpose. The collected samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters including total alkalinity, temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, alkalinity, total hardness and total suspended solid. Common cations (Li+, K+, Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+), common anions (NO3-, SO42-, PO42-, F- and Cl−) and heavy metals (Pd, Ni, Mn, Pb, Co, Zn, and Cu) were analyzed. Accordingly, the results obtained show that most of the physical and some common ions and heavy metals were within the accepted range of the guideline recommended by WHO. However, some parameters are at alarming state as compared to the WHO standards for drinking purposes, thereby suggesting the need for treatment and precautionary measures for use of the particular ground water. Key words: Ground water, physicochemical parameters, common cations, common anions, heavy metals.

Modelling risk using Bayes theorem of infection by antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in rural and urban populations of Ecuador.

Strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria have become more and more prevalent. This has attracted the attention of health agencies worldwide, leading to an urgent search for mechanisms to put a stop to this phenomenon. This study focuses on estimating the probability of a person in Ecuador (at potential risk) contracting an infection due to ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli through the consumption of contaminated water, for which a residence area of people was considered in urban or rural areas. The analysis was carried out using the Bayes Theorem and the results show that in the rural population the probability of contracting an infection of this kind is 8.41% whilst in the urban area the probability is 3.57%. These results show an urgent need to provide safe water sources to the population, as well as to instigate an environmental legislation reform that allows for controlling the release of emerging pollutants, including antibiotics.

Organizing Under Austerity: How Residents’ Concerns Became the Flint Water Crisis

What might it take for politically marginalized residents to challenge cuts in public spending that threaten to harm their health and wellbeing? Specifically, how did residents of Flint, Michigan contribute to the decision of an austerity regime, which was not accountable to them, to spend millions to switch to a safe water source? Relying on evidence from key interviews and newspaper accounts, we examine the influence and limitations of residents and grassroots groups during the 18-month period between April 2014 and October 2015 when the city drew its water from the Flint River. We find that citizen complaints alone were not sufficiently able to convince city officials or national media of widespread illness caused by the water. However, their efforts resulted in partnerships with researchers whose evidence bolstered their claims, thus inspiring a large contribution from a local foundation to support the switch to a clean water source. Thus, before the crisis gained national media attention, and despite significant constraints, residents’ sustained organization—coupled with scientific evidence that credentialed local claims—motivated the return to the Detroit water system. The Flint case suggests that residents seeking redress under severe austerity conditions may require partnerships with external scientific elites.

Outbreak of Wilderness/Backcountry/Travelers’ Diarrhea at a Himalayan Base Camp at 4000 m/13,125 ft

Introduction: Wilderness or backcountry diarrhea is a type of travelers’ diarrhea commonly caused by Cryptosporidium and Giardia, which can survive freezing temperatures. Campsites pose additional risks worldwide, irrespective of developing or developed regions, due to inadequate hygiene. Methods: In a first of its kind, an outbreak of wilderness diarrhea at a semi-permanent Himalayan Base Camp at 4000 m/13,125 ft in Uttarkashi, India, was investigated and managed by empirical antimicrobials. Return of normal bowel function was considered as primary outcome, and return to routine training at Base Camp was considered secondary outcome. Results: Sixty-two personnel presented with wilderness diarrhea of 5.58 days mean duration with onset after mean stay of 10.26 days, despite provisions for adequate camp hygiene and sanitation. Both primary and secondary outcomes were reached by all except three students who were evacuated on foot to the district referral hospital 56 km downhill from Base Camp. Hygiene was compromised due to cold weather/water. Epidemiological surveillance was not contributory. Conclusion: Wilderness diarrhea can present in outbreak proportions from formerly safe water sources due to variable microbial contamination. On-site diagnostics and management are required to control outbreaks of wilderness diarrhea. Traveler risk management strategies and traveler awareness/education can be a targeted mandatory intervention to enhance preparedness and resilience capital in outdoor and mountain environments.

Impacts of Improved Water Access on Water Vendors and Resellers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

Increasing access to safe water remains a global priority even though the Millennium Development Goals more than halved the number of people lacking access to water. The Sustainable Development Goals, introduced in 2015, go further and seek universalaccess to a source of safe water located on premises. In Dar es Salaam, there is a significant gap between the number of households using safe water—meaning water free from contamination—and the number of households with a source of safe water on premises. Efforts to increase access on premises largely focus on expanding the city’s piped water network. Households lacking a direct connection to this network must rely on informal suppliers such as vendors, household resellers, and kiosks.Informal suppliers, also called small water enterprises, are an important part of increasing water access in areas not currently served by the piped network. Yet, as Dar es Salaam increases water access, these informal suppliers lose customers and income.This paper uses interviews with these suppliers to explain the impacts and causes of increased water access. It suggests ways that development policy can improve water access without harming these informal suppliers.

Perceptions about interventions to control schistosomiasis among the Lake Victoria island communities of Koome, Uganda.

BackgroundPraziquantel-based mass treatment is the main approach to controlling schistosomiasis mansoni in endemic areas. Interventions such as provision and use of safe water, minimising contact with infested water, disposal of stool in latrines and snail control provide key avenues to break the transmission cycle and can sustain the benefits of mass treatment in the long term. Efforts are also being made to develop a schistosomiasis vaccine which, if effective, might reduce the incidence of re-infection after treatment. However, any interventions deployed need to be acceptable to, and sustainable by, the target communities.MethodsIn this qualitative study, we investigated the perceptions of six Lake Victoria island communities of Koome, Uganda, about interventions to control Schistosoma mansoni infection and their willingness to participate in Schistosoma vaccine trials. Thirty-two in-depth interviews, 12 key informant interviews and 10 focus group discussions were conducted. Data were analysed using a thematic content approach.FindingsIntestinal schistosomiasis was not regarded as a serious health problem because a mass treatment programme is in place. However, the communities lack safe water sources and latrines. Mass treatment with praziquantel, safe water supplies and use of toilets were deemed the most acceptable interventions by the participants. The communities are willing to participate in Schistosoma vaccine trials.Conclusion/SignificanceKnowledge of a community’s perception about interventions to control schistosomiasis can be valuable to policy makers and programme implementers intending to set up interventions co-managed by the community members. In this study, the views of the Lake Victoria island communities of Koome are presented. This study also provides data to guide further work on alternative interventions such as Schistosoma vaccine trials in these communities.

Experiences with integrative Indigenous and Western knowledge in water research and management: a systematic realist review of literature from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States

The implementation of Indigenous and Western knowledge systems in integrative water research and management is gaining prominence in the realm of academia, particularly in four countries with a shared, albeit different, history of British colonialism: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. While integrative water research in particular is gaining popularity, currently there is a gap in our understanding regarding where, when, why, how, and for whom this type of research has been successful. A systematic review method was used to identify peer-reviewed literature from each of the four countries and to understand where and when integrative water research projects were taking place. Then, we used a realist review method to synthesize and analyze the included peer-reviewed literature to determine why, how, and for whom this type of research has been successful, or not. Our systematic literature search provided 669 peer-reviewed articles from across the four countries, of which 97 met our inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Our findings indicate that the total number of integrative water research projects has been increasing since 2009, though these projects are largely concentrated within the realm of social science and conducted by non-Indigenous authors. Recognition of the value of Indigenous knowledge systems, coupled with an understanding that the use of Western knowledge systems alone has not remedied the disparity in access to safe water sources in Indigenous communities, has led researchers to recommend collaborative partnerships and governance structures as a potential pathway to effective integrative water research. Our research was conducted to enhance contemporary understanding of the strengths of implementing Indigenous and Western knowledge systems and to encourage readers to continue working towards a common goal of reconciliation and equality in all partnerships.

Diarrhea Morbidities in Small Areas: Accounting for Non-Stationarity in Sociodemographic Impacts using Bayesian Spatially Varying Coefficient Modelling

Model-based estimation of diarrhea risk and understanding the dependency on sociodemographic factors is important for prioritizing interventions. It is unsuitable to calibrate regression model with a single set of coefficients, especially for large spatial domains. For this purpose, we developed a Bayesian hierarchical varying coefficient model to account for non-stationarity in the covariates. We used the integrated nested Laplace approximation for parameter estimation. Diarrhea morbidities in Ghana motivated our empirical study. Results indicated improvement regarding model fit and epidemiological benefits. The findings highlighted substantial spatial, temporal, and spatio-temporal heterogeneities in both diarrhea risk and the coefficients of the sociodemographic factors. Diarrhea risk in peri-urban and urban districts were 13.2% and 10.8% higher than rural districts, respectively. The varying coefficient model indicated further details, as the coefficients varied across districts. A unit increase in the proportion of inhabitants with unsafe liquid waste disposal was found to increase diarrhea risk by 11.5%, with higher percentages within the south-central parts through to the south-western parts. Districts with safe and unsafe drinking water sources unexpectedly had a similar risk, as were districts with safe and unsafe toilets. The findings show that site-specific interventions need to consider the varying effects of sociodemographic factors.

The role of bottled drinking water in achieving SDG 6.1: an analysis of affordability and equity from Jakarta, Indonesia

Abstract Bottled water serves an increasingly large percentage of urban poor populations in lower-income countries, yet receives little attention within international development research and policy. This study investigates the impact of packaged drinking water (refill water) on affordability and equity of drinking water access by the urban poor under SDG 6.1, comparing refill water cost and consumption across socioeconomic quintiles drawn from two sub-districts of Jakarta, Indonesia. Analysis of a customer survey (n = 80) and in-depth interviews with 12 small-scale refill water providers reveals the significance of water quality, convenience, and reliability of water in defining affordable water access. Lower-income households perceive refill water to be the most affordable, safe drinking water source available to them, despite representing the second highest per unit cost source. Piped water is considered more expensive despite its low per unit volume cost, because of total costs associated with guaranteeing its reliability and quality. We suggest that the combined costs of securing domestic and drinking water for poorer households need to be considered for future approaches targeting the provision of inclusive water access under SDG 6.1 in Indonesia. Packaged water needs to be taken into account in the strategies designed to increase access, and measurements of affordability and equity of access.

Stormwater reuse, a viable option: Fact or fiction?

The increasing spread of urbanisation is a common phenomenon witnessed in most parts of the world due to the perceived benefits of urban living. A compounding issue is the growing shortage of safe and reliable water sources. Perennial water shortages are becoming a common feature in many parts of the world. It is important to recognise stormwater reuse as a key resource for securing adequate future water supplies based on the concept of ‘water fit for purpose’. These require careful prioritisation of vulnerabilities, identification of the areas requiring adaptation and provide certainty of outcomes. Given the increasing inevitability of climate change it should be viewed as an opportunity to take advantage of new opportunities which stormwater reuse presents. This study identified key barriers to stormwater reuse and the difficulties in removing them.

Water, sanitation and hygiene in Jordan’s healthcare facilities

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to determine water availability, sanitation and hygiene (WSH) services, and healthcare waste management in Jordan healthcare facilities.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 19 hospitals (15 public and four private) were selected. The WSH services were assessed in hospitals using the WSH in health facilities assessment tool developed for this purpose.FindingsAll hospitals (100 percent) had a safe water source and most (84.2 percent) had functional water sources to provide enough water for users’ needs. All hospitals had appropriate and sufficient gender separated toilets in the wards and 84.2 percent had the same in outpatient settings. Overall, 84.2 percent had sufficient and functioning handwashing basins with soap and water, and 79.0 percent had sufficient showers. Healthcare waste management was appropriately practiced in all hospitals.Practical implicationsJordan hospital managers achieved major achievements providing access to drinking water and improved sanitation. However, there are still areas that need improvements, such as providing toilets for patients with special needs, establishing handwashing basins with water and soap near toilets, toilet maintenance and providing sufficient trolleys for collecting hazardous waste. Efforts are needed to integrate WSH service policies with existing national policies on environmental health in health facilities, establish national standards and targets for the various healthcare facilities to increase access and improve services.Originality/valueThere are limited WSH data on healthcare facilities and targets for basic coverage in healthcare facilities are also lacking. A new assessment tool was developed to generate core WSH indicators and to assess WSH services in Jordan’s healthcare facilities. This tool can be used by a non-WSH specialist to quickly assess healthcare facility-related WSH services and sanitary hazards in other countries. This tool identified some areas that need improvements.

Proposal of simple and reasonable method for design of rainwater harvesting system from limited rainfall data

Recently, rainwater harvesting (RWH) is gaining interest as an alternative source of safe drinking water especially in developing countries. Getting a detailed and suitable rainfall data to have a good design of RWH system is a challenge in developing countries. In RWH system performance predictions, direct use of monthly rainfall data may lead to considerable error instead of using daily rainfall data. This paper proposes a simple and reasonable design method of rainwater harvesting system from available limited data like monthly rainfall data, which can achieve negligible error and conservative predictions. A RWH model that employs the designed rainfall which generates daily rainfall for each month with distribution of uniformly number of wet days in the last days of month as its input gives performance predictions quite similar to that of using actual daily rainfall.

Synthesis and physicochemical characterization of MnO2 coated Na-bentonite for groundwater defluoridation: Adsorption modelling and mechanistic aspect.

An efficient fluoride adsorbent was synthesized by coating Na-activated bentonite with MnO2 through in-situ reduction of KMnO4. Physicochemical and mineralogical compositions of the adsorbent were determined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) and Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) techniques. Batch experiments were conducted to evaluate the adsorption kinetics, adsorption isotherm, effect of pH and the effect of co-existing anions on fluoride removal. The data showed a better fit to Langmuir adsorption isotherm while the kinetics data fitted better to Pseudo second order. Sorption of fluoride occurred via electrostatic attraction and ion exchange adsorption mechanisms The regeneration study showed that MnO2 coated Na-bentonite (Mn-NaB) can be successfully regenerated up to 5th cycle with 0.01M NaOH. The chemical stability assessment showed that Mn-NaB leaches out traces of Mn2+ ions at low pH levels. The study recommends that Mn-NaB be used for defluoridation of groundwater in areas where no alternative sources of safe clean water are available. Moreover, further studies should be conducted to improve the stability of Mn-NaB.

Motorized Rural Water Supply Points in Some Northern Nigeria States and the Way Forward towards Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Nigeria made efforts towards achieving the Goal Number 7, target 7c of the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 and now currently working on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. In order to support Nigeria's effort in improving access to safe rural water sources, a field work was carried out in the rural areas of Northern Nigeria (Sub- Saharan Africa) on documentation of Motorized Rural Water Supply Schemes, functionality status and challenges in operation and maintenance. The methodology engaged in achieving the project was based on use of instrument for collection of data, physical examination of water sources in the research area and interaction with members of the selected communities. Results showed that out of the 440 motorized schemes surveyed in the four selected States, the use of petrol/ diesel generators to power the schemes are predominant, these schemes accounted for 63.64% of the Motorized schemes. The use of electricity to power water supply schemes was found to be only 2.95% of all motorized schemes in the communities, about one third of motorized schemes found in communities were solar powered. From this research, it was concluded that Nigeria should re-strategize on the operations and maintenance of the rural water sources installed in communities if reasonable progress is to be made in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.