Safari Area Research Articles

Spatial point pattern of the baobab (Adansonia digitata) in semi-arid savanna, Southeast Zimbabwe

Species distribution modelling based on bioclimatic variables to understand habitat suitability and changes in range dominates studies on the spatial distribution of baobabs, which limits our understanding of how the small-scale plant–plant interactions influence the spatial point pattern of this keystone species in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa. Here, we investigated the spatial distribution of the baobab in two protected areas, Chipinge Safari Area (CSA) and Save Valley Conservancy (SVC) which lie in the semi-arid Southeastern lowveld of Zimbabwe. CSA was previously a sparsely human populated area before its proclamation as a protected area, has a small number of herbivores and baboons, and has no elephants, while SVC has a high density of elephants (1.5 km−2) and large number of herbivores. At each site, 1 km2 plots, SVC (n = 4) and CSA (n = 3), were established for spatial analysis. In each plot, we recorded the spatial location, elevation, height, diameter at breast height, and canopy cover of each baobab. Spatial point-pattern was assessed using both the inhomogeneous transformed L-function for Ripley's K-function and the pair-correlation function. Baobabs in SVC were larger (height, canopy cover, and basal area) relative to those in CSA. At both sites, baobabs were clustered at small spatial scale (0–50 m), indicating that competition was insufficient to cause density-dependent thinning that can lead to even distribution as we expected. The distribution of small baobabs was independent of large baobabs, which reflects the importance of other environmental factors such as site conditions and seed dispersal rather than nurse-protégé on seedling establishment. The random distribution pattern of adult baobabs could be the legacy effects of these random factors and processes at establishment. Overall, our study shows that the distribution of baobabs is not dependent on local plant–plant interactions, but most likely from larger scale random pattern forming factors and processes such as seed dispersal and environmental heterogeneity.

Assessment of Thatch Grass Harvesting Model in Protected Areas and Its Role as an Additional Livelihood Option for Woman in North West Matabeleland, Zimbabwe

Thatch grass is a readily available ecosystem productthat plays a direct economic and utilitarian benefit to woman in households surrounding the protected areas of Zimbabwe. The study describes the institutional arrangement in place for the exploitation and lesson highlights of thatch grass in the protected areas of Matetsi Safari Area and Kazuma pan national park in North West Matebeleland region. The arrangement for thatch grass harvesting is that only the women (young and elderly) are allowed to apply for thatch grass harvesting in protected areas for defined period of time usually two weeks. We used park registers of thatch grass harvesters to determine the number of women involved, thatch grass bundles harvested and villages involved. At total of 15 744 bundles of thatch grass were harvested in the year 2022. The total bundles that the woman took home were 10 962 while 4 784 were retained by the park or concession holders. On average, an individual woman collected 27 to 125 bundles. Each individual woman direct income from thatch grass harvesting ranged from US$ 40 to US$187 per harvesting season. The key lesson in the thatch grass arrangement is that woman can successfully be mainstreamed directly to benefit from protected areas without experiencing negative effects associated with resource access in protected such as wildlife poaching which might occur when men are involved. Further, coordinated thatch grass harvesting has less conflict with the trophy hunting experience and activities in the hunting areas. While some challenges have been experienced in the national park component, the challenges are partly due to the perceived regulations, purpose of national parks and the somewhat negative attitude of stakeholders operating in the park to use of natural resource by local communities. In order for the thatch grass harvesting to remain sustainable and compatible with activities in the protected area there ought to be planning, coordination, monitoring of harvesting activities andongoing ecological monitoring of potential ecosystem impacts.

An assessment of the impact of illegal artisanal gold mining on the environment in parts of Chewore Safari Area, Northern Zimbabwe

Illegal artisanal gold mining threatens biodiversity conservation within protected areas. The objectives of this study were to: (i) assess the environmental impacts of illegal artisanal gold mining in Chewore Safari Area (CSA) and (ii) assess trends in illegal artisanal gold mining within CSA, northern Zimbabwe. A mixed methods approach was used to collect data (i) from law enforcement records kept at CSA focusing on the period 2014 to 2021, and (ii) from field visits to areas affected by illegal artisanal gold mining. The study found that there was a gold rush into CSA with many people from the adjacent communities being arrested and prosecuted in the year 2014. A gradual decline trend in illegal gold mining activities was observed. Equipment or tools were confiscated from illegal miners including gold metal detectors. Site observations indicated destructive gold mining practices associated with visible land degradation. The study recommended increased law enforcement and awareness programmes within communities adjacent to CSA and reclamation of mined sites.

Impact of artisanal gold mining on woody vegetation in Chewore South Safari Area, northern Zimbabwe

The study assessed the impact of artisanal gold mining on the composition and structure of woody vegetation in Chewore South Safari Area (CSSA), northern Zimbabwe. The study area was stratified into two strata, namely, the mined area and the unmined area. Using random computer-generated points, 20 plots were sampled in the mined area and 20 plots were sampled in the unmined area. Each plot size measured 20 m × 30 m and the following were measured or recorded: the status of trees, tree species, species occurrences, stem circumference and tree height. Data were collected between January and February 2018. No significance differences (P > 0.05) were recorded in woody tree species diversity and tree height between the mined and unmined areas. In contrast, woody tree density (P = 0.049), basal area (P = 0.050), the occurrences of dead trees (P = 0.011) and damaged woody trees (P = 0.002) were significantly different between the mined and unmined areas. The TWINSPAN analysis divided the woody vegetation of CSSA into two groups of woody tree species assemblages, namely Colophospermum - Combretum closed woodlands on the unmined area and Colophospermum mopane - Brachystegia open woodlands on the unmined area. The study highlights that artisanal gold mining in CSSA contributes to damage and mortality of woody trees and will likely cause long term environmental disturbances and related consequences. The study recommends the need of appropriate authorities to work towards enhancing environmental awareness and enforcing policies and laws to prohibit mining in protected areas.

The status of honeybees (Apis mellifera scutellata) colonies in Hurugwe Safari Area-Rifa section, northern Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT Species Distribution Models (SDM) play an essential role in establishing factors affecting honeybee species spatial population distribution and ensuring effective niche habitat protection. This study aimed to assess the precision of the triangulation bee lining technique in locating Apis mellifera scutellata colonies within wild habitats, locate A. m. scutellata colony site population distribution and develop a predictive model of A. m. scutellata habitat suitability using SDM algorithms within Hurugwe Safari Area (HSA)-Rifa section, northern Zimbabwe. A survey of A. m. scutellata was carried out between February and October 2019. The triangulation bee lining technique was used to track wild bees to their colony sites. The bee lining technique was evaluated to assess its precision in locating honeybee colonies. Ensemble models were used to develop a predictive suitability niche ecosystem for A. m. scutellata nesting sites. The study located wild honeybee colonies using the triangulation bee lining technique with an 18% accuracy. Bee colonies were found at a mean distance of 27.7 m ± 2.06 from triangulated points. The predicted suitable areas were primarily areas close to the water sources and low-lying areas. The study recommended the use of the triangulation honeybee hunting method in locating wild honeybee colonies for research purposes, wild bee colony inspection for pests and diseases and sustainable organic honey collection.

Impact of Elephants (Loxodonta Africana) on Woody Vegetation Structure and Composition around Water Pans in Hurungwe Safari Area, Zimbabwe

Impact of Elephants (Loxodonta Africana) on Woody Vegetation Structure and Composition around Water Pans in Hurungwe Safari Area, Zimbabwe

Trends in elephant poaching in the Mid‐Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

Trends in elephant poaching in the <scp>Mid‐Zambezi</scp> Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

Protected Area Downsizing; Challenges and Ecological Implications on Large Mammal and Biodiversity Conservation in Chirisa Safari Area (CSA)

Protected area (PA) downsizing has been documented worldwide, but associated challenges on biodiversity and large mammal conservation in Chirisa Safari Area (CSA) are poorly understood. This study assesses the challenges associated with CSA downsizing on large mammals and biodiversity conservation. Field observations and face-to-face interviews were done with park management of CSA and SWRI from the 28th May 2021 to 10th June 2021. Analysis of station records on illegal activities, human-wildlife conflict (HWC) reports and land cover changes from 2010 to 2020 was also done. Poaching, encroachment by local people and veld fires, habitat fragmentation and HWC were sighted as major threats to large mammal biodiversity conservation in CSA. Analysed land cover and land use changes show evidence of the expansion of cultivation land and human settlements into areas that previously served as wildlife habitats. These changes have implications on large mammal and biodiversity conservation in CSA related to species migration, population decline, habitat loss and conflicts. We recommend that further research be undertaken in other areas affected by downsizing in Zimbabwe to aid knowledge in explaining its effect on large mammals and biodiversity conservation in adjacent PAs.

An Analysis of the Influence of Annual Rainfall Fluctuations on Wildfire Occurrence in Protected Areas in the Northwest of Zimbabwe

The occurrence and threat from wildfires are a conservation concern in semi-arid savanna-protected areas. The risk of wildlife occurrence is uncertain under climate change scenarios. However, general predictions are that different changes are likely to occur in weather conditions in different landscapes. We sought to analyze the influence of annual precipitation on wildfire occurrence in a protected area landscape in northwest Zimbabwe. Data on annual rainfall received and wildfire occurrence for Chizarira National Park (CNP), Chirisa Safari Area (CSA), and Sengwa Wildlife Research Area (SWRA) was analyzed using regression analysis. The relationship between the annual precipitation amount received per site and the number of wildfires recorded per site showed a positive correlation only for CSA. No significant differences were observed for CNP and SWRA at a significant level of p&lt; 0.05. The highest number of wildfires were recorded between July and November. We advance that annual rainfall is one factor among many drivers of wildfires and that this is not uniform but varies across the landscape. Effective annual precipitation contributes to high vegetation biomass production and accumulation of such biomass increases the risk of wildfires. In some instances, rainfall patterns could not explain the occurrence of wildfires. We, therefore, contend that other drivers such as human activities and natural factors are important drivers of wildfires across the three sites. The conservation implication of our finding is that robust fire management plans need to take an ecosystem approach that includes communities adjacent to protected areas.

Trophy quality trends and hunting effort of selected big game in Chewore South Safari Area, northern Zimbabwe, 2009-2012.

This study was based on a temporal analysis of trophy quality trends and hunting effort in Chewore South Safari Area (CSSA), Zimbabwe, for the period 2009–2012. We selected four of the big five species, namely; buffalo (Syncerus caffer), elephant (Loxodonta africana), the leopard (Panthera pardus) and lion (Panthera leo) for analysis. Existing database of 188 trophies from 2009 to 2011 was reviewed and recorded using the Safari Club International (SCI) scoring system. Further, 50 trophies for 2012 were measured and recorded based on the SCI scoring system. Local ecological knowledge on trophy quality and hunting effort in CSSA was obtained through semi-structured questionnaires from 22 conveniently selected professional hunters in 2012. The results indicated no significant change in trophy quality trends of buffalo, leopard and lion (p > 0.05) over the study period. In contrast, there was a significant decline in elephant trophy quality trend over the same period (p < 0.05). The results showed no significant change in hunting effort over the study period for all the four study species (p > 0.05). Furthermore, seventy-two percent (72%, n = 13) of the professional hunters confirmed that elephant population was declining in CSSA and this was likely due to poaching. Professional hunters perceived trophy hunting as a source of financial capital generation for wildlife conservation (61%, n = 11), as well as positively contributing to the local economy (56%, n = 10). It was concluded that hunting has limited negative impact on species trophy quality trends when a sustainable hunting system is consistently followed in CSSA. CSSA management need to continuously monitor trophy hunting, animal populations and employ adaptive management approach to quota setting and species conservation.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions in Hurungwe Safari Area, northern Zimbabwe

This study is the first to assess wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC) in Zimbabwe. The study analysed the impact and factors that influence vehicle collisions with large wild mammals along the Harare-Chirundu road section in the protected Hurungwe Safari Area, northern Zimbabwe. Data were retrieved from the Hurungwe Safari Area records and covered the period between 2006 and 2013. Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the recorded variables across the sampled area and to show trends of the prevalence of large wild mammals roadkill over time. Using STATISTICA version 10 for Windows, a two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine differences between the number of wild mammal animal roadkills and seasons. A total of 47 large wild mammal animals were killed between 2006 and 2013. The large wild mammal animals that died as a result of vehicle collisions constituted a total of 11 species, with the African buffalo and spotted hyena being the most hit and killed animal species. Most WVC involved heavy haulage trucks and passenger buses. There was no significance difference (P = 0.936) between number of large wild mammal animals killed from WVC between dry and wet seasons. The large wild mammal animals were mostly killed in areas near water sources. We recommend for the inclusion of wildlife protection safeguards in road infrastructure network design and development, particularly on roads that traverse across protected areas in Zimbabwe and beyond.

Trophy Hunting and Possible Source-Sink Dynamics in Protected Areas: Insights from Trophy Size and Offtake Patterns in Southeast Zimbabwe

Developing harvest management strategies in designated hunting areas requires systematic and robust monitoring. We assessed the trophy size, quota utilization, and distribution of kill sites of African elephant, Cape buffalo, greater kudu, and leopard for the period 2007-2014 in Malapati Safari Area, southeast Zimbabwe. Trophy sizes for African elephant significantly increased over time albeit being below the expected minimum Safari Club International (SCI) score. Cape buffalo trophy sizes declined significantly over time but were not different from the SCI minimum score. However, greater kudu trophy sizes were higher than the SCI minimum score despite being constant over time. Leopard trophy sizes were higher than the SCI minimum score and increased with time. Quota utilization for African elephant and Cape buffalo increased while that of greater kudu and leopard did not change between 2007 and 2014. Some kill sites, in particular, for the African elephant and Cape buffalo, were within the buffer area with the state protected area, i.e., Gonarezhou National Park. Increased hunting pressure likely leads to poor trophy quality and hunting within the protected buffer areas. In contrast, effective adherence to hunting ethics and scientifically and conservatively set quotas largely does not compromise the trophy quality of harvested species. The observed trophy size patterns and kill sites distribution suggest the possible existence of source and sink dynamics of trophy species occurring in a protected area complex within the Zimbabwe’s component of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park. To ensure sustainable trophy hunting in the study area and similar ecosystems the following are recommended: (i) scientifically robust, adaptable, and participatory quota setting process, (ii) enhanced adherence to good practice in terms of ethical hunting conduct, and (iii) development of a robust hunting monitoring system covering all elements of hunting for adaptive wildlife management.

Influence of two co-occurring invasive plant species on resident woody species and surface soil properties in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe

Savanna ecosystems contain multiple invasive woody plant species yet most ecological studies focus largely on single invader species. This study investigated the combined and single impacts of Lantana camara L. (sensu lato) and Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. on soil nutrient concentrations and resident woody species structure and diversity in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe. We laid 60 sample plots of 30 × 20 m in patches invaded by L. camara (L-invaded), D. cinerea (D-invaded), L. camara and D. cinerea (mixed) and in patches lacking both species (control). Soil C and N in mixed plots were twice greater than in L- or D-invaded (monoculture) plots and three times greater than in control plots. Soil P, K and pH did not differ between mixed and monoculture plots but were significantly higher compared to control plots. Soil moisture decreased on average by 64% in mixed and monoculture plots compared to control plots. Woody plant height, diameter, basal area as well as density of trees, shrubs and seedlings showed no significant difference between mixed and monoculture plots. The distributions of resident woody plant diameter and height conformed to the reverse “J” structure in control plots and bell-shaped structure in mixed and monoculture plots. The results suggest that co-invasion effects of L. camara and D. cinerea on resident woody vegetation and ecosystem functions can be greater or neutral than impacts of either invader species in isolation. We suggest that co-invaded sites should be prioritized for invasive plant management over single species invaded sites.

Spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) habitat occupancy in a national park, hunting area and private ranch in western Zimbabwe

AbstractEstimating habitat occupancy is one of the methods used in assessing how large carnivores utilise their environment, thereby enabling conservationists to make informed decisions for conservation management. We modelled spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta habitat occupancy in western Zimbabwe using sixty camera stations in a national park, a hunting area and a private ranch. Mean occupancy of the spotted hyaena was ψ = 0.617, SE = 0.147 and ψ = 0.502, SE = 0.107 during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Occupancy was high in clayey soils and grasslands in the national park and the safari area, a behaviour attributed to denning site preferences and possibly prey movement. Therefore, with changing land‐use, spotted hyaenas are likely to inhabit areas outside the national park as they search for food while restricting their dens to areas along grasslands that have clayey soils.

Trophy Hunting and Sustainability: Temporal Dynamics in Trophy Quality and Harvesting Patterns of Wild Herbivores in a Tropical Semi-Arid Savanna Ecosystem.

The selective nature of trophy hunting may cause changes in desirable phenotypic traits in harvested species. A decline in trophy size of preferred species may reduce hunting destination competitiveness thus compromising the sustainability of trophy hunting as a conservation tool. We explored the trophy quality and trends in harvesting patterns (i.e., 2004–2015) of Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer), African elephant (Loxodonta africana), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and sable (Hippotragus niger) in Matetsi Safari Area, northwest Zimbabwe. We used long-term data on horn and tusk size, age, quota size allocation and offtake levels of selected species. To analyse the effect of year, area and age on the trophy size, quota size and offtake levels, we used linear mixed models. One sample t-test was used to compare observed trophy size with Safari Club International (SCI) minimum score. Trophy sizes for Cape buffalo and African elephant were below the SCI minimum score. Greater kudu trophy sizes were within the minimum score threshold whereas sable trophy sizes were above the SCI minimum score between 2004 and 2015. Age at harvest for Cape buffalo, kudu and sable increased whilst that of elephant remained constant between 2004 and 2015. Quota size allocated for buffalo and the corresponding offtake levels declined over time. Offtake levels of African elephant and Greater kudu declined whilst the quota size did not change between 2004 and 2015. The quota size for sable increased whilst the offtake levels fluctuated without changing for the period 2004–2015. The trophy size and harvesting patterns in these species pose a conservation and management dilemma on the sustainability of trophy hunting in this area. We recommend: (1) temporal and spatial rotational resting of hunting areas to create refuge to improve trophy quality and maintenance of genetic diversity, and (2) introduction of variable trophy fee pricing system based on trophy size.

Habitat Heterogeneity Variably Influences Habitat Selection by Wild Herbivores in a Semi-Arid Tropical Savanna Ecosystem.

An understanding of the habitat selection patterns by wild herbivores is critical for adaptive management, particularly towards ecosystem management and wildlife conservation in semi arid savanna ecosystems. We tested the following predictions: (i) surface water availability, habitat quality and human presence have a strong influence on the spatial distribution of wild herbivores in the dry season, (ii) habitat suitability for large herbivores would be higher compared to medium-sized herbivores in the dry season, and (iii) spatial extent of suitable habitats for wild herbivores will be different between years, i.e., 2006 and 2010, in Matetsi Safari Area, Zimbabwe. MaxEnt modeling was done to determine the habitat suitability of large herbivores and medium-sized herbivores. MaxEnt modeling of habitat suitability for large herbivores using the environmental variables was successful for the selected species in 2006 and 2010, except for elephant (Loxodonta africana) for the year 2010. Overall, large herbivores probability of occurrence was mostly influenced by distance from rivers. Distance from roads influenced much of the variability in the probability of occurrence of medium-sized herbivores. The overall predicted area for large and medium-sized herbivores was not different. Large herbivores may not necessarily utilize larger habitat patches over medium-sized herbivores due to the habitat homogenizing effect of water provisioning. Effect of surface water availability, proximity to riverine ecosystems and roads on habitat suitability of large and medium-sized herbivores in the dry season was highly variable thus could change from one year to another. We recommend adaptive management initiatives aimed at ensuring dynamic water supply in protected areas through temporal closure and or opening of water points to promote heterogeneity of wildlife habitats.

Termitaria as preferred browsing patches for black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe

Abstract:This study tested the hypothesis that the black rhinoceros browses more on termitaria than off termitaria vegetation due to elevated soil and foliar nutrient levels on termitaria. We investigated the role of termitaria in providing nutrient-rich forage for the black rhinoceros, by comparing the preference (selection ratio) for vegetation occurring on and off termitaria, and then testing its relationship with foliar nutrient concentrations. Soil nutrients, bite intensity, tree species diversity, vegetation density, canopy cover and basal area were also surveyed on and off termitaria. We sampled 25 termite mounds together with their corresponding control plots in Chipinge Safari Area, Zimbabwe. Soil and foliar N, P, K, Ca and Na concentrations were greater on termitaria than off termitaria, with approximately twice the concentration of these nutrients. Browse preference followed the between-site differences in soil and foliar nutrient concentrations, with higher selection ratios and bite intensities for vegetation on termitaria than off termitaria. Diospyros quiloensis was the most preferred browse species whilst Combretum imberbe, Kigelia africana and Strychnos innocua were the least. In conclusion, the black rhino preferred vegetation on termitaria to that in the surrounding matrix, and utilization of vegetation can be influenced by the soil substrate on which tree species grow.

Notes on the Scrophulariaceae of Zimbabwean inselsbergs, with the description of Lindernia syncerus sp. nov.

AbstractAn account of the 19 Scrophulariaceae found on Zimbabwean inselbergs is given, based on studies of 53 inselbergs. Habitat preferences and importance of inselbergs as habitats are discussed. Lindernia syncerus SEINE, FISCHER &amp; BARTHLOTT from Umfurudzi Safari Area is described. The new combination Crepidorhopalon debilis (SKAN) FISCHER is made, the occurrence of the species is reported for the Flora Zambesiaca Area for the first time.