Sacrament Of Confirmation Research Articles

Confirmations that were not meant to be: religion, violence and the female body in Un poison violent (2010), Corpo celeste (2011) and Kreuzweg (2014)

ABSTRACT This article considers the representation of the adolescent female body and the relevance of corporeality in Catholicism in three Western European films, which have at their centre the religious confirmation. These are: Un poison violent (Love Like Poison, 2010, Katell Quilléveré), Corpo celeste (Heavenly Body, 2011, Alice Rohrwacher), and Kreuzweg (Stations of the Cross, 2014, Dietrich Brüggemann). The sacrament of confirmation as portrayed in the three films becomes the axis around which the dynamics of adolescence (i.e., changing body, blossoming sexuality, family conflicts) unfold, opening up a space for the analysis of the interplay between female subjectivities and Catholicism’s regulatory role. We look at the often-subtle violence exerted by Catholicism in an attempt to tame the female body and the ways female adolescents (re)negotiate their identity against the backdrop of religious authority. Our contention is that, in the films, the female protagonists’ subtraction from the confirmation becomes a way to distance themselves from the Catholic obedient body and reaffirm their individual, embodied subjectivity. To this end, we engage with the complex relationship between Catholicism, women, and women’s bodies, exploring the dichotomy between the Catholic ideal, unchangeable body and the continually-changing, desiring female bodies.

Penance as Sacrament of the Sacrifice of the Cross

Penance as Sacrament of the Sacrifice of the Cross Frederick L. Miller Each of the seven sacraments was instituted by Christ as a channel of his grace for the needs of his people. Saint Thomas Aquinas begins his treatise on the sacraments with an affirmation that God acts through the sacred humanity of Christ in each of the sacraments. The saving power must necessarily be derived by the sacraments from Christ's Godhead through his humanity.1 The Catholic doctrine of the sacraments flows from and, in a sense, is an extension of the Incarnation of the Eternal Son of God. Each sacrament has a material and verbal component, the former a sign of the humanity assumed by the Son of God in the Incarnation, the latter, a reminder that it is the Divine Word who became flesh for our salvation who acts in the sacraments. For five of the sacraments, a material sacramental sign (matter) and a sacramental word (form)—that is, a prayer formula that accompanies and specifies the meaning of the sign—are easily identifiable. For instance, in Baptism, the minister of the sacrament either pours water over the head of the catechumen or immerses the catechumen in a pool of water, with the words, "I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." The sacramental sign (matter) of Baptism is the pouring of [End Page 685] water or immersion in water; the sacramental word (form), the words that Christ himself taught us. In the sacrament of confirmation, the candidate is anointed on the forehead with Holy Chrism as the minister of the sacrament prays, "Be sealed with the gift of the Holy Spirit." The matter of confirmation is the anointing with Chrism, the form, the words determined by the Church. In the Holy Eucharist, the matter is unleavened bread and wine mixed with water, the form, the words Christ used to institute the sacrament of his Body and Blood at the Last Supper. Together matter and form constitute the sacrament through which Christ communicates grace to the recipient. In the Sacrament of Penance, there is no immediately perceivable material sign such as water in Baptism, chrism in Confirmation, the oil of the sick in the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick, bread and wine in the Eucharist, and the laying on of hands in Holy Orders. In attempting to identify the matter of the Sacrament of Penance, some have inaccurately identified it as the reality and effects of sin that inhere somehow in the sinner. Although the matter of the sacrament is intimately related to the sins of the penitent, Saint Thomas Aquinas explained that the sacramental sign is not sin per se but rather, a sincere sorrow for sin that is inspired by God: "The proximate matter of this sacrament consists in the acts of the penitent, the matter of which acts are the sins over which he grieves, which he confesses, and for which he satisfies. Hence it follows that sins are the remote matter of Penance, as a matter, not for approval, but for detestation, and destruction."2 If this contrition is authentically supernatural, it will include, at least implicitly, the willingness to do all that God requires for forgiveness, namely, confession to a priest and the readiness to make amends through acts of penance. Since the Christian who commits mortal sin is incapable of meriting reconciliation with God through any good work, he must seek the grace of repentance from the Holy Spirit. This plea for grace is itself the gift of the Spirit of God who draws the sinner to the heart of Christ, inspiring sorrow, the desire to confess the sin to a priest, and the need to make amends. The penitent responds to the Holy Spirit by accepting the grace of repentance and sincerely repenting. The Angelic Doctor stressed that the sacramental sign of Penance is made up of human acts inspired by the Holy Spirit and the absolution of the priest: "In those sacraments which have a corporeal matter, this matter needs to be applied by a minister of the Church, who stands in the place of...

The Ecclesiastical Role of The Holy Spirit in the Sacrament of Confirmation in the Teaching of Benedict XVI

Formation of an ecclesial community constitutes the basic moral call arising from reception of the sacrament of confirmation. Formation of the person should also aim at accomplishing this objective. The Holy Spirit given in the sacrament of confirmation plays a fundamental role in building the Church. Opening up to the gift of the Holy Spirit and submission to His direction allows to find the proper place in the Church and accept full responsibility for destiny of the Church.The ecclesiological role of the Holy Spirit in the sacrament of conformation sounds significantly in the teaching of Benedict XVI. In his speeches and documents, the Pope repeatedly brought the truth about the special power of the Holy Spirit and His gifts into building the community dimension of the life of the Church. Therefore, in this reflection – based on allocations of Pope Benedict XVI – the ecclesiological role of the Holy Spirit, coming in the sacrament of confirmation, was presented.

The Sacrament of Confirmation and Profound Intellectual Disability – A Catholic Perspective

Two reasons can be seemingly identified for the fact that people with profound intellectual disabilities tend not to receive the sacrament of Confirmation. One of them seems to be a misguided and ambivalent perception of such people, either frequently considered” innocent saints” not needing sacraments at all, or perceived unworthy of receiving sacraments. The other reason seems to be a lack of adequate recognition of the importance of the sacrament itself. This text identifies the sacrament of Confirmation as crucial both for the very existence and development of every individual member of Christ’s Body.

O sakralizacji monarchy. Koronacja Aleksandra II we wspomnieniach Andrieja Murawjowa

The article, based on the narrative Vospominaniya svyashchennogo koronovaniya [Memoirs of the Holy Coronation] by Andrey Muravyov, a religious writer, poet, theologian, as well as a church and State activist, is an attempt to present his views on the sacralisation of the monarch. It describes the elements of Alexander II’s coronation ceremony, which, according to Muravyov, was the apogee of the ruler’s life. According to the tradition, the ceremony in question had four elements: (1) a grand procession to the Dormition Cathedral (the most important sacred space in the Empire), (2) crowning the sovereign and investing him with regalia, followed by anointing the tsar with chrism, (3) visitation of the Cathedral of the Archangel and the Cathedral of the Annunciation to honour the ancestors buried there, and (4) the procession back to the palace, during which the Tsar stopped on the Red Staircase and bowed three times to the people assembled in the courtyard. In his account of the ceremony, Muravyov paid much attention to the rituals of investing the ruler with regalia and anointing him, the latter identified in Russia with the sacrament of Confirmation. To Muravyov, the coronation rite was a symbol of the tsar’s unity with the people, which was sanctified by the Church. The writer described the Russian people as the people of God and the new Israel, and considered their attachment to the tsar, as well as their love for him, as the guarantee of the greatness of Russia.

“Be Strong in the Lord” (Eph 6:10). The Role of the Virtue of Fortitude in Christian Life in the Light of the Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians by St. Thomas Aquinas

The article offers a comprehensive theological approach to the virtue of fortitude. The text examines the significance of the influence of grace on human ability to overcome difficulties when striving after goodness relying on Thomas Aquinas’s Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians. The grace of the Holy Spirit granted to the faithful works in human mind, relying on nature and purifying it elevates it to the supernatural level. Christians are given a full understanding of the end and a new way of acting. Christian fortitude is not so much an individual effort but the act of entering the dynamics of the mystery of Christ’s power, trust ( fiducia ) in His power, strategy and tactics. That is why, Christians receive the armor of God ( armatura Dei ) from Christ so that they can withstand “the powers of this dark world” (Eph 6:11:13–17). As our struggle is not only against “flesh and blood” but also “against the rulers and against the authorities” (Eph 6:12). Putting on the armor of God takes place through the grace of the Holy Spirit, mostly in the sacrament of confirmation ( sacramentum conformationis ). Every Christian is endowed with the benefits of election ( beneficium electionis ) and predestination ( beneficium praedestinationis ) in the Church, that is the community of believers, and in their presence he gives the testimony of faith and love. The spiritual struggle is a fight against the traps of the devil ( insidia Diaboli ) and spiritual forces of evil ( spiritualia nequitiae ), acting in the world and among other people who are on the side of evil and sin. “Be strong in the Lord and in the power of His might” ( confortamini in Domino et in potentia virtutis eius ) consists in being strong and ready to defense, always standing on the side of God. Christ’s fortitude is the result of His experience of the mystery of Passion, Death and Resurrection in the power of love. Christian fortitude is the fruit of joining Christ, the participation in his Mystery and in the community of the Church. Aquinas’s Commentary emphasizes that the power of the grace of the Holy Spirit is the sign of participation and conformity to Jesus Christ in the service of the Church and the Gospel.

Bierzmowanie osób niepełnosprawnych intelektualnie

Kościół został powołany przez Jezusa Chrystusa, by stanowił wspólnotę miłości dla wszystkich ludzi. Jest to wspólnota, czerpiąca miłość od Jezusa Chrystusa, który swą obecność urzeczywistnia we wzajemnej miłości. W takim kontekście autor próbuje odczytać prawo osób niepełnosprawnych intelektualnie do korzystania z darów sakramentalnych, w tym sakramentu bierzmowania. Sakrament ten, ostatni z sakramentów wtajemniczenia chrześcijańskiego, dla osób niepełnosprawnych intelektualnie, nawet w stopniu głębokim, oznacza doświadczenie miłości Boga w drugim człowieku i we wspólnocie. Autor uważa, że takie osoby stanowią szczególny dar miłości Boga dla wspólnoty, która bierze na siebie odpowiedzialność za kruchość ludzkiego życia.

Seal of the Spirit: The Sacrament of Confirmation and Pentecostal Spirit Baptism

This paper offers a comparison of the Roman Catholic practice of confirmation and the classical Pentecostal understanding of Spirit baptism. It begins by examining the biblical texts which provide the basis of each ritual, and then moves on to develop each practice historically in reference to their ecclesial and personal significances. Despite obvious differences, a comparison of the practices illustrates that they serve both to empower believers for future service and to enter into a fuller ecclesial communion. The paper concludes with a reflection on the theological significance these practices, namely that they are ritual expressions of the transjective experience of the Spirit.

Profesja zakonna jako sakramentalium w kontekście liturgii Kościoła

W artykule profesja zakonna została zaprezentowana w kluczu wzajemnej relacji między sakramentaliami i sakramentami. W opracowaniu opartym na euchologiach nowego rytuału i oraz mszy obrzędowych wykazano wyraźne odniesienie profesji zakonnej do chrztu, Eucharystii oraz pośrednio do bierzmowania. Dowiedziono też, że sakramentalia i sakramenty wzajemnie się warunkują i pozwalają chrześcijaninowi na stałą i twórczą łączność z Bogiem, potwierdzając komplementarność zasad ex opere operato i ex opere operantis w liturgii. Dojrzałe i owocne uczestnictwo w misterium zaślubin z Chrystusem zapewnia Duch Paraklet. Świadoma uległość Duchowi Świętemu, którego należy kojarzyć z sakramentem bierzmowania i z każdą epiklezą, pomaga przeżywać profesję i wynikający z niej stan w wymiarze eschatologicznym. Profesja zakonna, która należy do grupy sakramentaliów konstytutywnych, w istotny sposób wpływa na kształtowanie i rozwój participatio actuosa osób konsekrowanych w życiu liturgicznym Kościoła.

Die belang van onderrig in die beginfase van die kerk: Johannes Calvyn as kategeet in sy kommentaar op die Handelinge van die apostels

The importance of education in the early stages of the church: John Calvin as catechist in his commentary on the Acts of the apostles Part of Calvin’s development as a catechist is his struggle against the Roman Catholic sacrament of confirmation (“Inst.” 4.19.4-13). Confirmation is seen by Rome as the necessary addition to baptism. For Calvin, however, this sacrament is a man-made ritual that can not function as the Scriptural com-plement to baptism. According to him, catechesis is the most Scriptural complement to baptism. Indeed, in baptism one receives Christ and all his promises. No addition is needed, and therefore one is not half a Christian without the confirmation (“Inst.” 4.19.8). What is needed, is that a person will get to know Christ and his promises. For that purpose catechesis (Christian education) is necessary, whereby children and young people are brought to confession of faith before the church (“Inst.” 4.19.13). Both Calvin’s struggle against the Roman Catholic confirmation, and his accompanying emphasis on Christian education are discussed in several places in his commentary on the Acts of the apostles. Especially in two places (Acts 8:15-17 and 19:6) Calvin criticises the Roman Catholic confirmation as an in-vention of men. Against this he emphasises in his commentary the importance of catechesis – on the one hand as the task of the officebearers, on the other hand as the task of individual believers and their families.

Arguments for Reintegrating the Sacraments of Christian Initiation for Latin-rite Children

Arguments for Reintegrating the Sacraments of Christian Initiation for Latin-rite Children J. J. Jorgensen Introduction In this essay, I propose that the Catholic Church of the Latin Rite adopt the eastern Christian practice of conferring on children the sacraments of Christian initiation – baptism, confirmation, and Eucharist . Once fully initiated, moreover, children should be admitted to the Eucharist regularly, as is the eastern tradition. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC), The sacraments of Christian initiation – Baptism, Confirmation and the Eucharist – lay the foundations of every Christian life. “The sharing in the divine nature given to men through the grace of Christ bears a certain likeness to the origin, development, and nourishing of natural life. The faithful are born anew by Baptism, strengthened by the sacrament of Confirmation, and receive in the Eucharist the food of eternal life. By means of these sacraments of Christian initiation, they thus receive in increasing measure the treasures of the divine life and advance toward the perfection of charity.” Throughout this essay the word “children” refers to anyone under the age of discretion (generally taken to be about seven) but to infants ordinarily , since baptism should take place within the first few weeks after birth. See 1983 Codex iuris canonici [CIC] can. 867.1; cf. 1990 Codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium [CCEO] can. 686.1. Eastern Christians name this sacrament “chrismation” because the recipient is anointed with sacred chrism. The fragrant perfume mixed with oil in this chrism caused a fifth-century writer to see the anointing as an unction of one who is to spread “the fragrance of Christ” by the holiness of his life (Pseudo-Dionysius, De ecclesiastica hierarchia II.8). The western use of the term “confirmation” expresses the sacrament’s relation to baptism, confirming it, sealing it, strengthening it. Throughout this essay I will use the western term consistently. Catechism of the Catholic Church [henceforth: CCC], 2nd ed. (Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1997) 1212; quoting Pope Paul VI’s Apostolic Constitution Divinae consortium naturae of 1971. All citations of the CCC are drawn from this edition. Antiphon 13.3 (2009): 264-287 265 Arguments for Reintegrating the Sacraments of Christian Initiation for Latin-rite Children Adult catechumens in the Latin and eastern churches are given the full rite of initiation in the same ceremony. In the eastern churches, children likewise receive full initiation within the same liturgical celebration . The Latin Church, on the other hand, divides the Christian initiation of children into three discrete events: baptism at infancy; then, at about age seven, confirmation and first Eucharist. However, episcopal conferences may decide on a different confirmation age. In the Latin-rite dioceses of the United States, confirmation is celebrated any time between the ages of seven and sixteen, depending on the decision of the local Ordinary. The majority of dioceses delay confirmation until adolescence, which means that most confirmation candidates have been receiving the Eucharist for several years – this, despite the fact that “all the relevant ecclesiastical documents – for example, the Catechism, the Code of Canon Law, Sacrosanctum concilium , the text of the RCIA – presume the celebration of confirmation The Second Vatican Council prescribed the revision of the Roman rite of baptism of adults and decreed that the catechumenate for adults, divided into several steps, should be restored: Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum concilium (4 December 1963) 64, 66. CIC can. 867.1. CIC can. 891. CIC can. 914. CIC can. 891. The law follows from a provision contained in the Introduction to the Rite of Confirmation, published by the Congregation for Divine Worship (22 August 1971): “With regard to children, in the Latin Church the administration of confirmation is generally delayed until about the seventh year. For pastoral reasons, however, especially to implant deeply in the lives of the faithful complete obedience to Christ the Lord and a firm witnessing to him, the conferences of bishops may set an age that seems more suitable. This means that the sacrament is given, after the formation proper to it, when the recipients are more mature;” in Documents on the Liturgy 1963-1979: Conciliar, Papal, and Curial Texts [henceforth: DOL], ed. International Commission on English in the Liturgy [ICEL...

Youth Ministry in and beyond the Church? The sacrament of confirmation in the Roman Catholic Church as a testcase[1

This article deals with the dilemma in which the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe is involved, concerning the initiation of young people into the life and faith of Christian communities. Some people argue that only a solid and profound mystagogical catechesis can revitalise the congregation, other people are in favour of the idea that the church should remain open for every particular quest for meaning of young people today. Two different opinions on the meaning of the gospel for postmodern youth cultures are at stake. In the field of confirmation catechesis this discussion culminates in strong tensions and conflicts. In this article a third vision on confirmation catechesis is presented which focuses on the hermeneutical qualities of the Christian gospel and on the possibility of young people to explore these qualities by ‘following the church at some distance’. [1] This article was originally published in the Flemish pastoral review Collationes(1998, Vol. 28, pp. 91‐100) with many references to Flemish literature (books, articles, materials, brochures and policy statements). It has been shortened and re‐edited for an international forum. I thank John Ries for his valuable help in translating the text.

Some Disputed Questions about Confirmation

The sacrament of confirmation has been for some time the subject of much theological debate and diverse pastoral practice. Across the Christian spectrum, and within individual churches, there has been little agreement on the meaning of the rite, on its sacramental status, on its minister, on the appropriate age and preparation of the subject, and so on. While some of this confusion is gradually yielding to increased awareness of the history and evolution of the rite, there is evidence that the problem has been exacerbated by common logical fallacies, an understanding of which may clarify the issue.

La confirmación en la evangelización de América (s. XVI). Aplicaciones para hoy

In this article we propose to study how the sacrament of confirmation was both understood and practised in the period of the evangelisation of America (16th century), extracting some lessons on how to understand and practice it in today's Church. The intention of the study is to demonstrate how, at any given moment in the life of the Church, we cannot «absolutise» any approach or praxis, ignoring the plurality of situations in which an «inculturating» application has been made; this is in answer to those who want to absolutise some as supposedly «more traditional».

The Ecclesiastical Role of the Holy Spirit in the sacrament of confi rmation in the Teaching of Benedict XVI

Formation of an ecclesial community constitutes the basic moral call arising from reception of the sacrament of confi rmation. Formation of the person should also aim at accomplishing this objective. The Holy Spirit given in the sacrament of confi rmation plays a fundamental role in building the Church. Opening up to the gift of the Holy Spirit and submission to His direction allows to fi nd the proper place in the Church and accept full responsibility for destiny of the Church. The ecclesial role of the Holy Spirit in the sacrament of conformation sounds signifi cantly in the teaching of Benedict XVI. In his speeches and documents, the Pope repeatedly brought the truth about the special power of the Holy Spirit and His gifts into building the community dimension of the life of the Church. Therefore, in this refl ection – based on allocations of Pope Benedict XVI – the ecclesiological role of the Holy Spirit, coming in the sacrament of confi rmation, was presented.

Texts Illustrating the Causality of the Sacraments from William of Melitona, Assisi Bibl. Comm. 182, and Brussels Bibl. Royale 1542

TEXTS ILLUSTRATING THE CAUSALITY OF THE SACRAMENTS FROM WILLIAM OF MELITONA, ASSISI BIBL. COMM. 182, AND BRUSSELS BIBL. ROYALE 1542 The three following texts which we present here to illustrate the causality of the sacraments are taken from William of Melitona in his Quaestiones de sacramentis,1 Assist Bibl. Comm. 182,2 ff. 78V—79V, and Brussels, Bibl. Royale 1542,3 ff. 181 r. There is already not a little literature on each of these documents, and since we do not strive here to present any further clarification of the problems involved, we simply refer the reader to what has already been published. As it appears to us, the importance of the texts lies in this, that they illustrate the physical dispositive theory of the causality of the sacraments in what we might call its first self-realization. The problem is well developed, the fundamental reasons for its existence are well brought to light, and the mind of God with respect to the nature and function of a sacrament in the sanctification of man is opened up to us after the convictions of the theology of the time. St. Thomas was to come later on to utilize this theory, and to expand, clarify and develop the notion of the sacrament as an instrument of grace, the theory 1 With reference to the Quaestiones of William of Melitona, we may confer P. Glorieux, Répertoire des Maîtres en Théologie de Paris au XIII siècle, (Paris, 1933) II, n. 304; Summa Fratris Alexandri, Prolegomena, Ad Claras Aquas, 1948 (V. Doucet, O. F. M.), p. 240 et passim; K. Lynch.O.F.M., "The Alleged Fourth Book of Odo Rigaud and Related Documents," in Franciscan Studies, 9 (1949) pp. 87 ff.; and our recent study, TAe Sacrament of Confirmation in the Early-Middle Scholastic Period, Franciscan Institute Publications, Theology Series n. 5, (St. Bonaventure — Louvain — Paderborn ) 1957, PP- XLIII ff. 2 On Assist Bibl. Comm. 182, cf. Summa Fratris Alexandri, Prolegomena, p. 144 ff. where an ample bibliography is given. Cf. also The Sacrament of Confirmation, pp. LXV et passim. 3 With reference to Brussels Bibl. Roy. 1542 cf. Summa Fratris Alexandri, Prolegomena, p. 228; E. Lio, O.F.M., Franziskanische Studien, 1951, p. 385ft. ; "The Alleged Fourth Book of Odo Rigaud and related Documents" in Franciscan Studies, loe cit.: V. Doucet, Commentaires sur les Sentences, supplément au Répertoire de M. Frédéric Stegmüller, Ad Claras Aquas, 1954, p. 64. With reference to this codex we may likewise consult Magistri Alexandri de Hales, Glossa in Quatuor Libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi, vol. I (Bibliotheca Franciscana Medii Aevi, t. XII), pp. 76, 97, 99 and vol. IV, (!957)- P- 6, 27 (cf. index). 238 Causality of the Sacraments239 of physical instrumental causality. But within the texts edited here the restlessness which brought the theory into existence and brought it to its first maturity already meets us. From a literary point of view, the amazing similarity of Assist 182 and the Quaestiones vf Melitona arrest our attention. There is little, very little, of an exact verbal concordance between the two texts; yet, over a very large part of each there is a manifest similarity of argument and thought, Melitona, of course, posing the items of his argument in his own strictly personal style. Which is the dependant, and who the author of Assist 182 with respect to the present matter may be,4 remains an open question. Brussels Bibl. Roy. 1542 arranges over again the matter of the questions of Melitona, and is included here since it adds some originality in expanding the material of its source according to a definite pattern, namely, drawing out the endings of the different responses. The same material finds its ultimate setting in the Quarta Pars of the Summa Fratris Alexandri (Summa Alexandri Halensis), where it is englobed in a compilation with other material. We have indicated in the footnotes where the repetition of the Quaestiones of Melitona occurs in the Summa. As to the dating of the material edited here, before 1250 may be the best date to assign; Assist 182 shows such an amazing affinity to the Quaestiones of Melitona that...

Sacerdotal Aspects of the Lay Apostolate

Notwithstanding that Catholic Action has been already so thoroughly investigated and discussed, it is possible that sufficient attention has not yet been paid to the important question of its sacramental basis and sacerdotal implications. It should hardly need to be said that Catholic Action, as a thing if not as a name, is not something new in the Church; it is, on the contrary, implied in the very notion of membership of the Mystical Body of Christ and is an integral part of Catholic truth.It is important to insist that the Church of God is a hierarchic society in which membership implies also status, a status which derives immediately from oneness with Christ and a sharing in His perfections and powers, and therefore in His sacerdotal character. The nature and the degree of this sharing in the Priesthood of Christ varies considerably in the different grades within the Church; but it is a reality even in the lowest grade and gives an almost unbelievable quality and value to even the most commonplace participation in the liturgical life of the Church; and the source of this sacerdotal power throughout all the hierarchical grades is to be found in the Sacraments. Moreover, as far as Catholic Action in the modern sense is concerned, there is a particularly important source to be recognised in the Sacrament of Confirmation.

Some Notes on Early Christian Baptism

ONE OF THE PHENOMENA which arouse considerable interest from the standpoint of Christian archeology, and present problems of some difficulty from the standpoint of Christian doctrine, is concerned with the nomenclature employed in relation to Christian Baptism. In Hebrew the verb for baptism is tabal, in Syriac 'amad, and in Greek baptizein. The question of the change from the Hebrew root tabal to an entirely different one in the cognate Syriac language is a matter of great interest. With a terminology for baptism probably already in existence, and usages ready to hand, why did not Syriac utilize the current Hebrew idiom? A brief resume of the state of the question may not be beside the point. James Murdock in an article called The Syriac Word for Baptism in Bibliotheca Sacra, 7 (1850), pp. 733-743, interpreted the Syriac 'amad, meaning the reception of baptism, as coming to a stand or taking a public and decisive stand on the side of Christianity (p. 740). In the same publication, of the next year (8, pp. 554-563) Davies in his article An Investigation in Syriac Philology presented a number of different opinions as to the meaning of the word. There is, first of all, that advanced by Murdock (noted above), which was first proposed by Michaelis and approved by Gesenius: to take a decisive stand. A second view, proposed by Henderson and Schindler in the Lexicon Pentaglotton, interpreted 'amad: to stand at or in water in order to be sprinkled or poured upon. Stabant enim, qui baptizabantur. In other words, 'amad meant to stand in the act of being baptized. Davies' criticism of this is pertinent: (a) Christians certainly stood up for other acts than baptism, and (b) what possible reference could this derivation bear in relation to the baptism of infants? (Cf. op. cit., p. 555.) A third possibility was advanced by Dr. Augusti, Dr. Lee of Cambridge, and Moses Stewart. According to this, the root meaning of baptism came from the Sacrament of Confirmation; so to stand-to establish to con-