Quality Of Sachet Water Research Articles

Determination of Shelf Life of Selected Sachet Water in Ogbomoso, Oyo State Nigeria

Water is life and every living thing depends on it for existence. Sachet water has gradually become the most widely consumed liquid in Nigeria with varying qualities. This study investigates the temporal variation in water quality of Sachet water produced in Ogbomoso, Oyo State. Ten (10) brands of sachet water from Ogbomoso South and North Local government area were collected within 24 hours of production and stored at standard room temperature and conditions. Sub-samples were drawn from the stock samples on daily basis for physico-chemical measurements on the water samples Temperature, pH, colour, turbidity, Hardness, Total Alkalinity, Dissolve Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Nitrate values were determined in accordance with World Health Organization (W.H.O) analytical methods. Temperature, pH and Colour values ranged from (28.3 - 30.5) ̊C, (7.96 - 8.80) and (20-70) Hazen, respectively. The Total hardness EC and DO and BOD values varied from (45-105)mg/l, (11 - 184)µs, (2.83 - 12.24)mg/L and (18.2 - 28.4)mg/l, respectively. Shelf life for the selected sachet water in Ogbomoso is 12 weeks from the date of production under laboratory condition with partial exposure to sunlight.

The Effects of Storage on Sachet Water Quality in Ogun State, Nigeria

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of storage on the physicochemical status and bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Abeokuta metropolis, Nigeria. Ten brands of sachet water were collected within 24 hours of production and stored at ambient temperature. Sub-samples were drawn from the stock samples immediately for physico-chemical and microbiological analyses and after two months. Physical parameters were determined by instrumental methods. Cationic and anionic constituents were determined by standard titrimetric and spectrophotometric methods, trace and heavy water were determined by Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer. The study revealed that all the brands of water analyzed were physically and chemically wholesome and met the WHO standards. Five brands (50%) of the water had total viable and coliform count above the recommended count of 100cfu/m and zero cfu/ml, respectively. pH values increased in all brands to acceptable WHO limits within 2 months of storage except for sample 3 and 4 which decreases below the acceptable limit. Majorly dissolved oxygen and nitrate values decreased through the investigation period. Total and faecal coliform appeared in 50% of sachet water samples analyzed immediately after production and were no longer detected after storing for two months except for sample 4. Results of the experiment indicate that 60% of the brands analyzed met the WHO guideline limit for drinking especially for the physico-chemical parameters while the majority failed in the microbiological essay when stored at ambient temperature for the two-month investigation period.KEYWORDS: Coliforms, Conductivity, Microbiological Assay, Physical and Chemical Parameters,Turbidity, Sachet Water

Physiochemical and Bacteriological Analysis of Selected Sachet Water in Jere and Maiduguri, Borno State Nigeria

The study involved the determination of some physiochemical and bacteriological properties in sachet-water samples taken within selected geopolitical wards in Jere and Maiduguri Metropolis. The purpose was to ascertain the quality of sachet water sold for consumption within the area. Ten samples were drawn, five from each study area. The samples were analysed for temperature, colour, turbidity, pH, conductivity, iron, total alkalinity and total dissolved solid. Bacteriological analysis was also carried out using multiple tube (most probable number) technique for enumeration of both total coli form count and differential Escherichia coli count. Other physical examination like volume, National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC) registration number, batch number, production date and expiry date were also examined. The results obtained were compared with World Health Organization (WHO), NAFDAC and Nigeria Standard of Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ). Variations were observed among the entire samples in comparison with the standard. Some of the parameters conform to the standard like the Tempreture, pH, colour, odour, iron content and NAFDAC registration number while others like TDS, total alkalinity and volumetric quantity fell below the standard. The bacteriological analysis also showed that 80% of the samples studied revealed the presence of coliforms. Hence, there is need for regulatory agencies like NAFDAC and Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) to intensify effort in the routine monitoring of quality of sachet water marketed for consumption.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ije.v4i1.12177 International Journal of Environment Volume-4, Issue-1, Dec-Feb 2014/15, page: 48-57

Assessment of physicochemical quality of sachet water produced in selected local government areas of Kano Metropolis, Kano State - Nigeria

Fifty (50) brands of sachet water produced from bore hole and tap water in five (5) local government areas of Kano metropolis were analysed for physicochemical quality. Ten (10) brands of sachet water were sampled from each of the five (5) local government areas of; Nasarawa, Tarauni, Gwale, Kumbotso and Ungogo. Physical parameters tested such as; colour, taste, odour and pH in all (100%) the sachet water samples conformed to the recommended limits. Chemical analysis carried out such as; conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), chloride content, fluoride content, nitrate and nitrite content, total hardness and free chlorine all conformed to the requirements of the WHO and NIS standards. Heavy metals tested (using AAS) include; Manganese (Mn), Arsenic (As), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu) and Lead (Pb) also conformed to the requirements of the standards. However, Iron (Fe) content in all the sachet water produced from bore hole (twenty three brands (23)(46%)) were observed to be above the recommended NIS limit of 0.3mg/l. It can be concluded from the results of this study that the physicochemical parameters tested in the sachet water samples were within the permissible limits stipulated by the drinking water standards, hence on this basis the water is considered fit for consumption.Key words; Kano metropolis, Physicochemical quality, Sachet water

Consumers’ Perception of Quality and Health Beliefs of Sachet Drinking Water: Evidence from Obuasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana

The consistent rise in the utilization of sachet water as a primary source of drinking water for households and the general public has come of note in recent times. Government efforts to provide a safe and reliable source of drinking water has not been fully realized thus alternative sources of water provisioning are sought by the population. In spite of the varying levels of contamination reported in all studies in Ghana on sachet water quality, it still receives an appreciable level of trust from consumers. This study therefore employed both quantitative and qualitative research designs to elicit survey and semi – structured interview responses. The semi – structured interviews were a follow up to probe further respondents’ health beliefs and concerns associated with sachet water. The study unveiled health beliefs associated with sachet water, concerns about tap and bottled water, respondents’ admission to littering with plastic sachet, brand loyalty, attitudes towards the cross – checking of labeling requirements and respondents’ perceived quality of sachet water. Others included respondents’ consumption behavior and sachet water companies’ compliance to labeling requirements on sachet water. Many a respondent were unsure of any health beliefs with regard to sachet water but were concerned about its storage. Brand loyalty played a good role in consumers’ choice of sachet water with organoleptic properties (colour, taste and odour) the main factors influencing the perceived quality of sachet water. Others included religious affiliation of sachet water producing companies, packaging and radio advertisements.

Sachet Water Quality and Brand Reputation in Two Low-Income Urban Communities in Greater Accra, Ghana

Sachet water has become an important primary source of drinking water in western Africa, but little is known about bacteriologic quality and improvements to quality control given the recent, rapid evolution of this industry. This report examines basic bacteriologic indicators for 60 sachet water samples from two very low-income communities in Accra, Ghana, and explores the relationship between local perceptions of brand quality and bacteriologic quality after controlling for characteristics of the vending environment. No fecal contamination was detected in any sample, and 82% of total heterotrophic bacteria counts were below the recommended limit for packaged water. Sachets from brands with a positive reputation for quality were 90% less likely to present any level of total heterotrophic bacteria after controlling for confounding factors. These results contrast with much of the recent sachet water quality literature and may indicate substantial progress in sachet water regulation and quality control.

Improving sachet water quality – does Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points apply?

AbstractSachet water is growing in importance as a source of drinking water for many people in Nigeria. In recent years, doubts over the quality of sachet water have grown. Commentators often cite poor distribution and storage practice for contamination of sachets. However, the integrity of the production process has been shown to be a weakness but has not received attention from the regulator or producers because of a lack of proper regulation of the industry. This study implemented the hazards analysis and critical control points (HACCP) framework in eight sachet water factories in Ibadan, Nigeria. The objective was to test HACCP's viability as a proactive management tool for improving sachet water quality. The findings show that HACCP can be adopted within the sachet water industry. However, the implementation of HACCP requires both technical and behavioural changes within the production process.

Production and Vendor Practices that Compromise the Quality of “Sachet” Water in the Central Region, Ghana

Over the years, deteriorating quality of pipe borne water has urged most Ghanaians to patronize sachet water as a safer and cheaper source of drinking water. The study investigated production and vendor practices that compromise quality of sachet water in the Central Region of Ghana. Quasi experimental design - Single Group Interrupted Time Series (SGITS) was used. Six sachet water producing companies and 6 vendors who sell products from these companies were purposively selected. Three sachets (500ml) were sampled from each company and vendor totaling 36 sachets. Membrane Filtration (MF) and Multiple Tube Fermentation (MTF) were used to isolate Total coliform (TC), Fecal coliform (FC), E. coli (EC) and Total heterotrophic bacteria (TH). Borehole water ‘B’ had very low pH (5.3). TC was positive (141 cfu/100ml) in one water sample while all 18 water samples were positive for TH when MF was used probably as a result of the use of inefficient filters. Samples taken from vendors’ sachet packages were more contaminated than those from companies using both MF and MTF. This indicates that production and vendor practices can further contaminate sachet water as was shown by the lack of good manufacturing practices such as observing personal hygiene among company staff. A more proactive approach that identifies risks and puts in place measures at critical points in sachet water production to promote and enhance overall quality will be important. The introduction of membrane filters as a more sensitive way of detecting these parameters as well as the Presence/Absence test as an inexpensive, reliable and easy test in the analysis of sachet water hopefully will help improve and maintain quality. It is recommended that the Ghana Health Services partner with the metropolis to develop a bacteriological water quality monitoring training program to help train producers of sachet water to meet standards.

Quality of sachet water produced and marketed in Minna metropolis, North Central Nigeria

Microbiological and micronutrient quality of sachet water samples sold in Minna metropolis Niger State, Nigeria was analyzed using micro filter membrane and atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The metropolis was divided into four clusters and sachet water was collected from the factories within each cluster. Total bacteria count (TBC), total coliform count (TCC) and presence of fecal coliforms were evaluated. Bacteria count ranged from 7.00 ± 0.19a to 166.67 ± 0.38d colony-forming units (cfu/ml). The fecal coliform ranged from 2.33 ± 0.50a to 15.00 ± 0.77f cfu/100 ml. Fecal coliforms were isolated from sachet waters from zones A and C. Salmonella and Shigella spp were not detected in the samples. Micronutrient examination of the samples showed that the sachet water samples differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) in their micronutrient composition. However, lead (Pb) was not detected in the samples from any of the clusters. While the TBC of the water samples were within the acceptable regulated limits, the presence of feacal organisms in the samples from some clusters was indicative of gross contamination. Absence of heavy metals showed that sewages though rampant in the metropolis may not be sipping into bore holes or are not chemically contaminated. The need for proactive surveillance by regulatory agencies is advocated. Key words: Sachet water, quality, marketed, Minna metropolis.

An assessment of the potential livelihood opportunity in sachet water vending in Jalingo Metropolis, Taraba State, Nigeria

The production and sales of sachet water presently plays a major role in the provision of drinkable water and employment opportunities to many different people in different parts of Nigeria. Most studies on sachet water dwells on the quality aspect and the menace of poor disposal of sachet water bags. This study dwells on the livelihood aspect of sachet water vending in urban areas of Nigeria with special reference to Jalingo Metropolis and ways that can improve the services offered by sachet-water vendors that can enable the entrepreneurs to positively contribute to national goals of self-reliance and reduction of poverty. The survey design method which involves the use of interview schedule was used in collecting data for the study. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data collected. The study reveals that the average income from sachet water vending is about N19,500 (US$130) monthly which is above the national minimum wage of N18,500 (US$123.3) recently approved by the Nigerian Government. The result of the study shows that sachet water vending provides very important livelihood opportunities that have been neglected in the study area especially by majority of the unemployed adults. Most of those engaged in sachet water vending are young people who are less than 18 years of age. The study findings shows that most of those engaged in sachet water vending have been able to accomplish meaningful welfare projects for themselves ranging from payment of marriage dowries, building of houses, purchase of motorcycles among other things. This study recommends the need to develop cheap water treatment instruments that will help to improve the quality of sachet water. Also, young unemployed adults should be encouraged to take to sachet water vending even as a temporary means of earning a living instead of staying idle, searching for white collar jobs that do not exist.

Prevalence of multiple drug resistance and screening of enterotoxin ( stn) gene in Salmonella enterica serovars from water sources in Lagos, Nigeria

To determine the prevalence, antibiotic resistance and carriage of enterotoxin (stn) gene among strains of Salmonella isolated from water sources in Lagos. A total of 200 samples (60 well water, 60 pipe-borne water and 80 different brands of sachet water) were collected at random from various locations in Lagos. The samples were evaluated bacteriologically using standard methods. The identified isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests and were further screened for the presence of stn gene using standard procedures. Thirty-seven of the samples analysed were positive for Salmonella isolates. Seven serotypes were found -Salmonella typhi (n=3, 8.1%), Salmonella typhimurium (n=8, 21.6%), Salmonella choleraesuis (n=5, 13.5%), Salmonella enteritidis (n=9, 24.3%), Salmonella paratyphi (n=8, 21.6%) and Salmonella arizonae (n=4, 10.8%) - with at least one serotype present in all water sources. Over 60% of Salmonella isolates carried stn gene and the risk was higher in pipe-borne water. There was no relationship (P>0.05) between enterotoxin-producing gene and antibiotic resistance in Salmonella isolates. Thirteen resistance patterns wereexhibited by the isolates, with Str. Amp.Tet.Chl.Amo.Gen, Str. Amp.Tet.Amo.Chl.Amo.Nal.Nit, Str.Tet and Str. Amp.Tet.Chl.Amo being the most notable resistance patterns observed. Isolates that carried stn gene developed resistance to more antibiotics. Although reduced susceptibility to ciproflocacin was observed in two strains, none of the isolates developed resistance to ofloxacin. Emerging multidrug-resistant Salmonella serotypes with stn gene were found in the water samples, which may pose a threat to public health. Constant monitoring of pipe leakages, the quality of various wells and the quality of sachet water is advocated to avoid possible future outbreaks of salmonellosis due to consumption of contaminated water.

Bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Teshie-Nungua suburbs of Accra, Ghana

Access to good quality drinking water is a challenge in most towns and cities in Ghana and households have for years depended on other sources of water to supplement their activities. The introduction of sachet water to consumers was to provide safe, hygienic and affordable instant drinking water to the public. Although this is a laudable idea, current trends seem to suggest that sachet drinking water could be a route of transmission of diseases. The objective of this study was to determine the bacteriological quality of sachet water popularly known as “pure water” produced and sold in the Teshie-Nungua suburbs of Accra, Ghana, one of the areas withperennial water shortage forcing inhabitants to depend on sachet water as a source of drinking water. Using simple random sampling procedures, 30 samples from 10 brands of sachet water were collected from hawkers/vendors in Teshie-Nungua (3 samples per brand). One sachet water sample was taken from each site every fortnight for six weeks in May-June 2007. The samples were analyzed using multiple tubemethod and biochemical assays. Results were recorded as Most Probable Number (MPN) of coliform per 100ml of water. The bacteriological quality of the samples was assessed based on the World Health Organization (WHO) classification system for drinking water. Five (16.7 %) of the samples were Excellent, 5 (16.7%) were Satisfactory, 9 (30%) were Suspicious and 11 (36.7%) were Unsatisfactory using the MPN values recorded. Six samples were contaminated with faecal coliform and two of these, (P1 and P2) were from the same brand. Escherichia coli was also detected in the two samples (P1 and P2) out of three samples from the same brand. The level ofcontamination could be due to inadequate treatment of water samples by the producers, improper use of filters or post-production contamination. The findings suggest the need to enforce the laws that govern the operation of such production outfits as well as educating consumers on the need to purchase sachet water from manufacturers that have been licensed to produce water and whose product bears the stamp of the Food and Drugs Board of Ghana.