Saami Language Research Articles

“REINDEER” CONCEPT IN THE KILDIN SAAMI LANGUAGE

Целью данной статьи является представление семантического поля «Северный олень» кильдинского саамского языка. В основу исследования положена гипотеза об особой степени антропоцентричности такого исчезающего финно-угорского языка, как саамский, и его большей связи с дологическим мышлением, что обусловлено исконным представлением человека как части природы у носителей саамского языка. Материал анализируется по тезаурусной схеме «Природа – Человек». Показано, что выделение смысла и оформление в отдельное слово непосредственно связано с важностью объекта, признака или действия для практической деятельности человека в кильдинском саамском языке. Специфика семантического поля в языке коренного малочисленного народа Севера в этом случае состоит в особом отношении данного этноса с природой. Анализ оппозитивных отношений в лексическом наполнении поля «Северный олень» выявляет наличие лакун, а также позволяет обозначить набор дифференциальных признаков. В исследуемом материале представлены такие типы оппозиций, как эквиполентные, привативные и градуальные.

ISSUES OF THESAURUS DESCRIPTION OF THE ENDANGERED LANGUAGES

The article addresses the specifics of ideographic dictionaries of the Kildin Sami language as an endangered language of Indigenous Peoples. We show the problem of structuring and organization of the thesaurus of indigenous peoples. For the Kildin Sami language the relation between the two types of thesaurus (thematic and ideographic) can be seen as a part to whole relation. Though the dictionaries’ structure is defined in different ways depending on their purposes: teaching and research. Systematization of the material is accepted in each dictionary. The traditional systematization of lexical material (genus-species relationship) is presented in the thematic dictionary. In the ideographic thesaurus we are facing the opposed systematization in addition to the traditional one. The research results can be applied to the development of bilingual lexicography, creation of manuals and textbooks for the study of the Saami language. This is especially crucial in the context of increasing attention to the ethnic and cultural development of the peoples of the Russian Federation and the measures taken for the development of a regional component in education.

Dictionaries of Critically Endangered Languages: Focus on Users

Abstract The article describes specific features of dictionaries of endangered languages from the perspective of their user. Dictionaries of the Saami language – the language of the indigenous minority of the North – are used to describe the anthropocentric, cognitive and pragmatic approach to lexicographical description of culture. The article shows that the focus on the dictionary user becomes especially critical for the endangered languages. It proves that the purpose of such dictionaries is not only to preserve the knowledge that the speakers of the endangered language and bearers of the culture still keep, but also to revitalize this knowledge. The article states that contemporary lexicography must consider several factors for making an endangered language dictionary: the present state of the language in the language community and the scope of background knowledge of a language speaker that represents everyday level of the world cognition by indigenous minority. The article shows that the most relevant type of dictionary for the endangered languages is both a learner’s dictionary and a linguoculturological dictionary (active type). We emphasize that on the one hand the Saami dictionaries describe a culture that is often unknown even to most Saami culture bearers and on the other hand, the dictionaries are also intended for Saami who have no command of the native language. The peculiarities of the relevant dictionary comprise the fact that alongside the translation in the basic part of the dictionary there is a culturological commentary that as fully as possible reflects the knowledge of language speakers.

Utilizing Language Technology in the Documentation of Endangered Uralic Languages

The paper describes work-in-progress by the Pite Saami, Kola Saami and Izhva Komi language documentation projects, all of which record new spoken language data, digitize available recordings and annotate these multimedia data in order to provide comprehensive language corpora as databases for future research on and for endangered – and under-described – Uralic speech communities. Applying language technology in language documentation helps us to create more systematically annotated corpora, rather than eclectic data collections. Specifically, we describe a script providing interactivity between different morphosyntactic analysis modules implemented as Finite State Transducers and ELAN, a Graphical User Interface tool for annotating and presenting multimodal corpora. Ultimately, the spoken corpora created in our projects will be useful for scientifically significant quantitative investigations on these languages in the future.

Pitesamisk grammatik - en jämförande studie med lulesamiska

The grammar book Pitesaami Grammar, a study in comparison to Lulesaami has been developed in the period 2011-2014 within the project "From coast to coast", which focuses on the encounters, environment and migration within the Pitesaami area on the Norwegian and Swedish sides of the border. The focus of the project has among other things been the comparative study between the Pite- and Lulesaami languages, aiming to produce a descriptive grammar of the Pitesaami, the result of which is this book. The Pitesaami – one of many varieties, or dialects, of the Saami language – is spoken today in the area of Arjeplog by only forty or so speakers. Pitesaami is a threatened language without any officially accepted orthography, but a proposed and well-functioning one exists today, very similar to the Lulesaami orthography and used in this study. The Pitesaami language, as well as Lulesaami, is characterized by consonant gradation. In addition, in inflected and conjugated words, even the vowels change according to specific rules presented in this study. Like other Saami dialects, Pitesaami is rich in forms but also very regular. There are nine personal forms within the verbal paradigm. Three of them, the dual forms (us two, you two, those two), are a rarity among current languages. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numerals are inflected into nine different cases. This study explains all these phenomena and clarifies the structure and grammatical rules of the Pite- and Lulesaami. This grammar aims to assist those who want to learn the language and should be regarded as part of a revitalization process. Combined with dictionaries, texts, sound-recordings and living speakers, this grammar will enable you to understand the construction of the language, so you can start practicing both to speak and write it.<p><br />Good luck with your Saami studies!</p>

The Kola Saami Languages: Contemporary Sociolinguistic Situation

This paper shows that the Kildin Saami language belongs to the group of critically endangered languages, which means that the youngest speakers are grand-parents and older. Family ‘linguistic’ connections are completely lost, the language is transmitted only by ‘academics’ (language courses) and used partially. To preserve the Kildin Saami language only the following can be done: change the status of the language through the formation of a language policy and create new opportunities for language functioning. My research is based on the framework that contemporary sociolinguistic situation should be studied from the following perspectives: number of native speakers, the language environment, language revitalization, the state’s language policy, prestige of the language, existence of written forms of the language, and others.

Cultural and climatic changes shape the evolutionary history of the Uralic languages

Quantitative phylogenetic methods have been used to study the evolutionary relationships and divergence times of biological species, and recently, these have also been applied to linguistic data to elucidate the evolutionary history of language families. In biology, the factors driving macroevolutionary processes are assumed to be either mainly biotic (the Red Queen model) or mainly abiotic (the Court Jester model) or a combination of both. The applicability of these models is assumed to depend on the temporal and spatial scale observed as biotic factors act on species divergence faster and in smaller spatial scale than the abiotic factors. Here, we used the Uralic language family to investigate whether both 'biotic' interactions (i.e. cultural interactions) and abiotic changes (i.e. climatic fluctuations) are also connected to language diversification. We estimated the times of divergence using Bayesian phylogenetics with a relaxed-clock method and related our results to climatic, historical and archaeological information. Our timing results paralleled the previous linguistic studies but suggested a later divergence of Finno-Ugric, Finnic and Saami languages. Some of the divergences co-occurred with climatic fluctuation and some with cultural interaction and migrations of populations. Thus, we suggest that both 'biotic' and abiotic factors contribute either directly or indirectly to the diversification of languages and that both models can be applied when studying language evolution.

THE ORIGINS OF STEMS OF STANDARD ESTONIAN – A STATISTICAL OVERVIEW

1. Introduction The research on the etymology of Estonian lexicon has already lasted for several centuries. Since the last conclusive overview, more than quarter of a century has passed (Ratsep 1983, 1986) and during this time the etymology of many stems has been adjusted and numerous new etymologies have been proposed. The first etymological reference books of Estonian were published in the early 1980s. Julius Magiste's monumental Estnisches etymologisches Worterbuch remained unfinished because of the death of the author, but Finno-Ugrian Society in Helsinki published the manuscript of it in 1983 in twelve volumes (EEW). One year before that Alo Raun had published a small reference book, that in a very concise style gives in one line the origin of the word and a few cognates (Raun 1982). The most recent attempt to give an overview of the etymology of Estonian lexicon was made in the Estonian Etymological Dictionary (EES), which is the first etymological dictionary of Estonian published in Estonia. Based on EES, I will give a new overview of the Estonian lexicon and statistical analysis of cognates in related languages. The methods and principles are similar to the ones used in Huno Ratsep's articles (Ratsep 1983, 1986) but there are some differences in the distribution of historical layers of the lexicon. It should also be noted that Ratsep based his research on his own card catalogue, not available to the public, the present research is based on published source in the shape of EES. First of all it has to be defined what a stem in the case of Estonian is. Based on synchronic linguistics all these lexemes should be considered stems, from which no case endings, number markers, tense markers, derivational suffixes etc. can be separated. But in the case of historical linguistics we also have to find all historical suffixes that have been merged to the stems and are no more considered as derivational suffixes. Plus we have to find all phonological rules, contractions of stems and other possible changes. One lexical morpheme (stem) from the viewpoint of contemporary language may historically derive from several stems, like e.g. praegu 'now' which is composed of two stems or may contain historically a derivational suffix. EES has made a questionable choice of defining as stems only the lexems that are not derived from other stems either in Estonian or in any proto-language from which Estonian derives. Accordingly the derivations from the Finnic or FinnoPermic period are not considered separate stems. For example nagu 'face' and nagema 'to see' are considered as one stem, although nagu is as Finno-Saamic derivation from the stem in Estonian nagema and which derives from Finno-Ugric stem *nake- (UEW:302). The word nagu has cognates in addition to all Finnic also in most Saami languages, e.g. North Saami niekko 'dream' (SSA 2:251). Another example is the case of words valva-(ma) 'to keep watch' and vaata-(ma) 'to watch', because the latter has been derived from the first by means of derivational suffix ta. Later the simplification of consonant cluster and contraction of syllables *lv > *l > O has yielded the word vaatama. In dubious cases the stems are dealt as separate ones, e.g. in case of valvama it has been proposed that this stem is an old derivation from a stem represented by Estonian vala-(ma) 'to pour'. The stem kat- in the word kat-(ma) 'to cover' is in contemporary Estonian undividable lexical morpheme. However, etymologically it derives from the sequence of two morphemes: *kante- and causative suffix *-tta-, besides *kanteis the same morpheme, found in contemporary Estonian kaas 'cover, lid'. According to the existence of cognates in related languages it is possible to divide stems of contemporary language into historical layers. In case of dubious etymologies it has been counted how many stems there are where cognates in some closer language are doubtless or to which other layer of loans the stem in question may belong. …

The past, present and future of the Pite Saami language: Sociological factors and revitalization efforts

Our paper is a report on the past, current and future state of the endangered Pite Saami language (aka: Arjeplog Saami) spoken in Swedish Lapland. Our primary data come from interviews with Pite Saami individuals and our field observations. We estimate the vitality of Pite Saami based on the UNESCO Language Vitality Scale, taking into consideration factors such as the number of speakers, language attitudes and the quality of documentation. We also discuss the possible reasons for the decline of Pite Saami, report on the speakers’ views of other Saami languages and Swedish, consider whether there is a specific Pite Saami identity, describe revitalization efforts already taking place, and discuss the future prospects of the language.

MIESSIITE, Pd11Te2Se2, A NEW MINERAL SPECIES FROM MIESSIJOKI, FINNISH LAPLAND, FINLAND

Miessiite, a new mineral species of ideal composition Pd11Te2Se2, is cubic, space group Fd 3 m (#227), a 12.448(2) A, V 1929.0 (4) A3, Z = 8. The strongest six lines of the X-ray powder-diffraction pattern [ d in A(I)( hkl )] are: 2.395(80)(511,333), 2.197(100)(440), 1.875(25)(622), 1.555(25)(800), 1.305(25)(931) and 1.271(30)(844). The mineral was discovered in a platinum-group-mineral (PGM) placer sample taken from the Miessijoki river, Lemmenjoki area, Inari Commune, Finnish Lapland, Finland. Associated PGM and other heavy minerals include stillwaterite, isomertieite, mertieite-II, cooperite, braggite, kotulskite, vincentite, tantalite, thorianite, pyrite, magnetite, chromite, and isoferroplatinum with inclusions of laurite and Os–Ir–Ru alloy. Miessiite is black with a metallic luster. The fragments are malleable and silvery grey in color. The average micro-indentation hardness VHN100 is 362 ( n = 4) and corresponds to a Mohs hardness of 2–2½. Under reflected plane-polarized light, the mineral is isotropic with a light grey color in comparison with the associated PGM grains. Measured values of reflectance are tabulated, obtained in air and in oil for a single grain. The reflectance values in air for the standard COM wavelengths are: 48.88 (470 nm), 51.63 (546 nm), 53.91 (589 nm) and 56.82% (650 nm). D (calc) is 10.94 g/cm3 (for the empirical formula and unit-cell parameter refined from powder data). The electron-microprobe analyses yielded (wt.%) Pd 75.17, Se 9.61, Te 17.06, total of 101.84 wt.%, which corresponds to Pd11.02 Te2.09 Se1.90, based 15 atoms. The mineral is named after the locality, the Miessi river (in Saami language, Miessijohka ).

Diversity in Saami terminology for reindeer, snow, and ice

The physical environment leaves its mark on cultures. Knowledge of snow and ice conditions has been a necessity for subsistence and survival in the Arctic and sub‐Arctic areas. Snow and ice terminology in the North Saami language, which is spoken in the northern parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, is based on the physical condition of different kind of layers of ice and snow. In addition, the relation to changes of weather and temperature conditions is often integrated in the terminology. Very basic in the meanings is also the quality and quantity of snow, judged according to the practical needs of people and animals. The author demonstrates this by explaining the terminology for conditions and layers of snow, terms based on the transportation and pasture needs of reindeer and those based on different kind of tracks in the snow. These are all nouns. With different kinds of derivations, the number of nouns, verbs and adjectives denoting snow, ice, freezing, and melting may easily amount to 1,000 lexemes. By analysing this kind of terminology, we can learn much about snow and ice conditions in the Arctic and living conditions for animals and human beings.

The Southern Saami Language in Svahken Sijte

The Southern Saami language is one of several Saami languages in Scandinavia and Northwest Russia. Today the Southern Saami language is an endangered language; most of the speakers are older people. This article describes an effort to transmit the language to the children in Svahken Sijte, the southernmost reindeer herding community in Norway.

On Germanic-Saami contacts and Saami prehistory


 
 
 The purposes of this paper are to examine the strata of old Germanic borrowings in Saami and to discuss the prehistory and formation of the Saami language branch in the light of what is known of its contacts with Germanic as well as other language groups. The next section summarises the present knowledge of the stratification of Germanic borrowings in Saami. In the third section 27 Saami words are etymologised as early Germanic loans. The concluding section discusses the main lines of Saami ethnic history on the basis of the results of the present study as well as other recent linguistic research.
 
 

The Language Situation in Finland

This monograph provides an overview of the language situation in Finland, an officially bilingual country in northern Europe. The national languages, Finnish and Swedish, have equal status, guaranteed in language legislation since 1922. During the 19th century, however, Swedish was still the language of the élite, while Finnish was the language of the common people. Therefore, the main accomplishment during the 19th century was the rapid development of the Finnish language into a language of education and administration, after Finnish was accorded official status in 1863. The beginning of independence (1917–) witnessed a number of language conflicts that gradually subsided and led to a long stable period between the languages. In the 1980s, the linguistic situation changed again in many ways. The former emigrant country became an immigrant country. Even though immigrant minorities in Finland are still small compared with, for example, other Nordic countries, immigration has created a situation where there are several established linguistic minorities. In the 1990s, the status of linguistic minorities was improved through a number of legislative and educational reforms, and in 2001, proposals for the new Language Act and the Saami Language Act were written. Simultaneously, the status of Finnish has changed somewhat. In 1995, Finland joined the European Union. Internationalisation and globalisation have become a part of Finnish society, and the role of English in business, education, media and science has become more accentuated than ever before. In this new situation, the future of Finnish as well as the other national language, Swedish, is discussed from the viewpoint of less widely used languages in a globalising world.

Readings in Saami History, Culture and Language 2, edited by Roger Kvist

Readings in Saami History, Culture and Language 2, edited by Roger Kvist

Davvin and Sámás ‐‐ a Saami Language Project: From a ‘condescending’ thought to a real foundation

Abstract The creation of a written language in a small linguistic society based on existing oral dialects can be a very intriguing and delicate matter. It demands a sense of compromise from the speakers of the language and a readiness and understanding from the surrounding ‘host’ society. This article describes the development of a Nordic co‐production in the Saami language.