Russian-Turkish Relations Research Articles

Understanding Cooperation in Russian–Turkish Energy Relations

Abstract This article conceptualises one of the most important factors shaping the Russian–Turkish multidimensional partnership—the dynamics around energy. It seeks to answer the question: “To what extent does energy ensure cooperation in Russian–Turkish relations, despite current tensions?” The author argues that even though the two countries have had disagreements over each other’s involvement in certain energy projects, their shared interests in energy have been strengthened by their interdependence and have led to a greater convergence, which in turn allows for cooperation. As a result, the energy sector serves as a mitigating factor in bilateral relations. The author focuses on Russian and non-Russian natural gas pipeline projects, using the interdependence theory as a theoretical framework.

INFLUENCE OF NEO-OTTOMANISM TRADITIONS ON THE CURRENT STATE OF RUSSIAN-TURKISH RELATIONS: THEORY AND PRACTICE

The article examines the problems of the current state of Russian-Turkish relations through the analysis of the theoretical and methodological apparatus of neo-Ottomanism (new Ottomanism) as a foreign policy tradition, which, from the author’s point of view, today occupies one of the leading places in the foreign policy course of the current government of R.T. Erdogan. The complexity and uncertainty of this phenomenon require the use of specialized analysis methods: a system-structural analysis of the foreign policy of states (developed by the corresponding MGIMO school), a scientific approach within the framework of FPA (foreign policy analysis), separate tools for analyzing the strategic culture and foreign policy institutions of Ankara (according to the methodology of G. Almond and S. Verba). According to the author, for the current foreign policy of Ankara, the tradition of neo-Ottomanism is system-forming due to its ideological saturation of the initial ideological foundation. At the same time, the ambiguity of its interpretations lays down an expansive interpretation of Turkey’s foreign policy behavior in the international arena, which is fraught with problems and conflicts for Moscow’s foreign policy in realizing its interests in areas of international politics that cross Ankara.

Symbiosis and Rivalry: The Russian-Turkish Relations from the Perspective of the International Status Theory

Symbiosis and Rivalry: The Russian-Turkish Relations from the Perspective of the International Status Theory

Trembling Chessboard: The Effects of Changing Russian-Turkish Relations in the South Caucasus

Trembling Chessboard: The Effects of Changing Russian-Turkish Relations in the South Caucasus

Russian and Turkic Worlds in Eurasia

This article delves into the dynamics of ethno-confessional factors influencing Russian-Turkish relations, exploring the Russian and Turkic worlds as geopolitical constructs within the Eurasian sphere. Employing a synthesis of critical and classical geopolitics methodologies, the study emphasizes the civilizational aspect as a pivotal element in the intricate interplay of competition and cooperation between Russia and Turkey in the Eurasian context. The research methodology integrates a civilizational perspective with critical geopolitics. The authors examine various strategies utilized by Turkey and Russia to implement ethnoconfessional policies in their quest for geopolitical influence. These strategies encompass the creation of narratives around 'fraternal nations', the promotion of shared historical, cultural, religious, linguistic, and heroic narratives; the cultivation of pro-Russian and pro-Turkish national elites; and the exploitation of ethno-national factors during domestic political crises. This analysis traces these phenomena from historical imperial contexts to contemporary interstate relations.Furthermore, the article underscores the significant impact of individual leadership in shaping the concept of the Turkic world, with a particular focus on the current President of the Turkish Republic, R.T. Erdogan. Erdogan is portrayed as a key figure actively advocating for and reinforcing the unity and identity of the Turkic world.

The Nature and Dynamics of the Development of Russian-Turkish Relations in the Post-Soviet Period

The Nature and Dynamics of the Development of Russian-Turkish Relations in the Post-Soviet Period

A Report to the Ottoman Court about the Russian Army and Navy in the 1730s–1740s.

Since the beginning of the 18th century contradictions in Russian-Turkish relations were becoming more acute; the number and intensity of military conflicts between the two states was noticeably increasing, and their results were becoming more and more unsuccessful for the Ottoman Empire. In this regard, the Sultan’s government preparing for combat operations, had a growing need for information about the state of the Russian troops. One of the channels for obtaining such information were European diplomats who sought to use the weakening Turkish military machine to promote political interests of their own countries. This article deals with the report acquired by the Ottomans, which had been compiled by Woldemar von Löwendahl, a European military commander, lieutenant general of the Russian army in 1735–1743, and later (1747) Marshal of France. The text of the report, which according to its title, had been received from a Swedish ambassador, was translated into Ottoman-Turkish and placed in the document miscellany presumably compiled by the 18th century Ottoman financial official Kesbî (d. after 1798). Kesbî, the author of the historiographical work “İbretnümâyı Devlet” (“Edification of the State”), was at one time engaged in the work connected with preparation for the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774. The analysis of the mentioned events and dates allowed us to assume that the document was translated into Ottoman-Turkish in 1763. By that time, its information had already lost relevance. However, it could still give the Ottoman military command the idea of the organization and actions of the Russian army and navy during the war of 1735–1739. From academic point of view, the text is interesting as a source on the history of Turkey’s international relations as well as on the history of the Russian armed forces. In addition, its very presence among Kesbî’s documents is important for describing the personality of this Ottoman official and historiographer.

РОССИЙСКО-ТУРЕЦКОЕ КУЛЬТУРНОЕ СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВО КАК ВАЖНАЯ СФЕРА СТРАТЕГИЧЕСКОГО ПАРТНЕРСТВА МОСКВЫ И АНКАРЫ В 2000-2015 ГГ.

The article deals with the development of Russian-Turkish cultural contacts in 2000–2015. The author draws attention to the fact that during the period cultural relations between Russia and Turkey, along with political and economic relations, reached the level of strategic partnership. It was manifested, in particular, in the fact that the role of the Ministries of Culture and embassies in the implementation of joint cultural projects increased, cultural issues were increasingly brought to the international level due to the participation of both countries in international organizations and global cultural projects (for example, the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations). Language policy became more active: in Russia, the issue of organizing the study of Russian language and literature in Turkey began to be raised, and the process became more systematic – various language courses at the embassy and educational institutions, created and controlled by the Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of Turkey, appeared. In turn, the Republic of Turkey was able to legalize its educational institutions and cultural centers in Russia. In describing the cultural interaction between the two countries, however, the author draws attention to the fact that cultural relations depend on political relations and instability in politics often negatively affects cultural cooperation, slowing it down or even nullifying important endeavors. A clear example of it was the political crisis in Russian-Turkish relations at the end of 2015, when all cultural projects implemented and planned by the two states were curtailed and frozen in a short period of time.

Russia/USSR – Türkiye/Turkey: Legacy of “Friendly Neutrality”.Goals of Soviet Policy towards Turkey

The article is dedicated to the analysis of the Soviet leadership’s approaches to the implementation of the goals of the Soviet foreign policy towards Turkey, legacy of which remains until nowadays. The Soviet-Turkish relations in the 1920-s were built up on the basis of common political interests shared between two neighboring states existing in a similar geopolitical environment. The common goal for the Republic of Turkey and the USSR was to overcome international isolation and ensure national security. The Soviet government’s approach to determining the role and place of Turkey in the security system near the borders of the USSR was outlined by People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G.V. Chicherin, who saw the Soviet-Turkish cooperation as one of the tools for ensuring the security of the Soviet borders in the south and southwest. One of the key issues in the Soviet-Turkish relations was the issue of the Black Sea straits. Considering the straits a "gateway" for an attack on the southern borders of the USSR, the Soviet government tried to revise the regime of the straits in a more favorable way for the country. the resolution of which in 1936 at the conference in Montreux did not suit the Soviet government completely. It was assumed that strong economic ties with the USSR and mutually beneficial security cooperation would become an effective instrument for deterring the Turkish leaders. During the Great Patriotic War, the goals of the USSR’s policy towards Turkey were to prevent it from being drawn into the war on the side of the antagonistic alliance, as well as to further revise the Montreux Convention in a more favorable direction for the Soviet leaders. The 1939–1946 attempts to put pressure on Turkey on the straits issue caused Turkey to withdraw from the orbit of the Soviet influence and led to almost two decades of hostile and tense relations between the two countries. After the death of I.V. Stalin, particularly in Khruschev’s era, the Soviet approach was characterized by a search for ways to improve Soviet-Turkish relations. The main instrument of this was expansion of the Soviet-Turkish trade and economic cooperation, due to which the foundations of today's highly developed bilateral Russian-Turkish relations were laid.

Turkish-Russian Relations in 21st Century: Problems of Development

This article provides a brief overview of the development of Russian-Turkish relations in the 21st century against the backdrop of changes in Turkey’s domestic political situation at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. Special attention is paid to the evolution of Turkey’s foreign policy strategy. It is noted that the Russian Federation is a particularly important partner for the Republic of Turkey. The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that currently, the relationship between the two countries continues to develop actively, despite external political challenges. At the same time, the history of Russia-Turkey contacts requires further study, as this period is not well represented in the existing literature. The novelty of this research lies in the use of new sources to study state relations. The authors of the article come to a justified conclusion that the Turkish government seeks to develop its relationship with the Russian Federation while maintaining ties with both Western and Eastern countries. This demonstrates their efforts to utilize the opportunities provided by Turkey’s geographical location, which serves as a “corridor” between various parts of Eurasia.

The Evolution of Russian-Turkish Relations: Ideational Convergence and Pragmatic Cooperation

Moscow-Ankara relations have been experiencing an unprecedented level of partnership simultaneously with a plethora of disputes between the actors. They have managed to continue cooperation without letting the emerging disagreements cause crises similar to the Su-24 Jet incident of 2015. This study examines Russian-Turkish relations since 2016 to expose how this alignment emerged and how the two actors operate in this partnership. After reviewing the literature that highlights the limitations and fragility of the cooperation, the authors shed light on the ideational convergence that allowed the alignment, arguing that it served as the basis of the current pragmatist and personalistic relations. Moreover, four main characteristics of this alignment are explained: 1) risk-aversion as the priority; 2) reliance on personalistic relations between the leaders; 3) focus on resolving issues among themselves instead of including non-regional actors; 4) economic pragmatism. Then, the risks that can potentially cause a collapse of this partnership are discussed, emphasizing the danger caused by the accumulation of unresolved disputes and political uncertainties in bilateral relations. Authors argue that under the current conditions, the partnership is fragile and will be tested by the upcoming challenges

Russian-Turkish Relations in the Context on Energy Cooperation

Energy cooperation takes an important place in Russian-Turkish relations, and it is not merely for economic benefits. Its importance goes beyond it and serves as a restraint from direct clashes between the two countries in the context of their competition areas and clashes of interest putting the two countries economically interconnected. Besides, Turkey’s geopolitical value in the context of the EU energy crisis also rises as an alternative energy route for the EU to bypass Russia. On the other hand, Russia and Turkey successfully cooperate around common energy route projects, as Russia in its turn is eager to export gas bypassing Ukraine. Taking into consideration the geopolitical processes Russia and Turkey will continue to cooperate in the field of energy which is their main cooperation area due to which they avoid serious tensions and overcome crises in their relations.

The Persian Campaign of Peter I on the pages of the Vedomosti newspaper

The first printed newspaper Vedomosti, founded by Peter the Great, is an important source for studying the history of Russian-Ottoman and Russian-Iranian relations in the ϐirst quarter of the 18th century. A lot of attention in the Vedomosti was paid to the international situation of the Ottoman Empire and Russian-Turkish relations. In general, the newspaper characterizes the Ottoman state as an enemy of Russia and all Christian peoples. Under the constant attention of the Vedomosti were the most important changes in the government of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), in the foreign policy priorities of Turkey, as well as domestic political issues the situation of its Christian subjects. The newspaper’s materials provide information about international relations on the eve and during the Persian campaign of Peter I of 1722– 1723, as well as about the representation of newly acquired possessions in the Eastern Caucasus. The Vedomosti newspaper was the ϐirst periodical that introduced the Russian society to the peoples of the Caucasus, the geography of the region and the military-political situation in the Western Caspian region.

The Rebirth of Empires: Contest and Cooperation of Russia and Türkiye in the Black Sea Region(Political and Historical Analysis)

Introduction. Modern Russia and Türkiye are dynamically developing geopolitical centers actively participating in the formation of a new model of international relations. The purpose of the research is to determine how historical models and patterns of interaction of the two states have influenced on current cooperation and their possible clash in the near future and compare their main resource opportunities for obtaining the status of a power in the new world order. Materials and Methods. The study is carried out within the framework of the paradigms of classical geopolitics using system, geopolitical, civilizational and historical approaches. The authors consider the historical experience of Russian-Turkish relations in the form of the interaction of imperial systems. Results. It’s seen that although Russia and Türkiye can be seen as historical antagonists, their imperial nature is based on Eurasian spatial projects that influence their contemporary foreign policy. Despite the12 Russian-Turkish wars, the powers have never posed an existential threat to each other and have had unprecedented periods of political rapprochement, while at the same time they have faced the existential challenges from the united West. Now, having a significant space for cooperation in the economic and geopolitical sphere, Russia and Türkiye clash in three key regions: the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa, the Black Sea region, the South Caucasus and Central Asia. The central issue of interaction is the problem of the functioning of the Black Sea straits. The issue was updated after the start of the Special Military Operation of the Russian Federation in Ukraine, when Ankara, on the basis of the Montreux Convention, blocked the straits for all warships that benefits Russia. Discussion and Conclusion. The sovereign revival of Russia and Türkiye is a reason for an extremely unstable climate of bilateral relations, within which a positive agenda is currently being formed due to the personal factor of the two presidents: painful issues to be postponed for future. This state of affairs requires a qualitative scientific examination of the historical and political experience of the interaction of the two powers and modeling of future bilateral relations.

On the Issue of the Nature and Dynamics of the Development of Russian-Turkish Relations in the Post-Soviet Period

The article examines the development of Russian-Turkish relations over the past 30 years, the main aspects of geopolitical relations and, in particular, the conflicts in the South Caucasus and adjacent regions. The authors believe that the key ones are the two Karabakh wars, the Georgian-Abkhazian conflict and the fve-day Georgian-South Ossetian war, as well as the Ukrainian crisis, the Libyan and Syrian conflicts, in which Moscow and Ankara have different interests. The new confguration of forces in the South Caucasus will largely depend on the outcome of the resolution of these conflicts. The authors identify the main patterns in the development of bilateral Russian-Turkish relations, which are characterized by a combination of confrontation, competition and cooperation. The article was based on the results of a scientifc discussion held at the National Communications Development Research Institution (NIIRC), Moscow, Russia in 2022.

Russian-Turkish relations: Economic and financial outlook

Subject. This article discusses the financial and economic prospects of Russian-Turkish relations. Objectives. The article aims to determine the level of significance of Russian-Turkish relations in the context of their financial and economic perspective. Methods. For the study, I used a systems approach based on the methods of statistical, neural network, and cluster analyses. Results. The article defines the levels of importance of certain financial and economic indicators for ensuring the growth of the Russian economy and Russian-Turkish relations as the potential of gross national savings of Turkey, mediated by a high level of GDP at purchasing power parity in Russia. Conclusions and Relevance. The described level of significance of Russian-Turkish relations, as well as the links between the Russian current account balance and the Turkish volume of exports and imports of goods (services) identified as a financial and economic prospect, will help the Government intensify Russia's cooperation with Turkey. The provisions of the study can help expand the competences of the Government to choose a way to maintain the stability of international economic relations.

Russian-Turkish Relations in the Context of Regional Balance of Power

In recent years, one can observe the rapid development of political, economic and military-technical ties between Turkey and Russia. At the same time, the Middle East issue plays a special role in the bilateral political dialogue. Contracts for the arms supply serve as a basis for testing the political trust of the two states that occupy leading roles in the Black Sea region. Since this space is as a transit zone between the Euro-Atlantic region and the conflict-prone Middle East, the interaction between Russia and Turkey largely determines the agenda.

ТОПОГРАФИЧЕСКОЕ ОПИСАНИЕ ЧЕРНОМОРСКИХ ПРОЛИВОВ, СДЕЛАННОЕ РУССКИМИ МОРСКИМИ ОФИЦЕРАМИ ВО ВРЕМЯ БОСФОРСКОЙ ЭКСПЕДИЦИИ 1833 Г. ( К 190-летию экспедиции)

The Bosphorus expedition of the Russian fleet in 1833 was a unique phenomenon in the history of Russian-Turkish relations throughout their existence. Never before had the Russian navy entered the Black Sea straits at the invitation of the Ottoman authorities, and its troops were not stationed on the shores of the Bosphorus. However, when describing the actions of the Russians, “internal” expeditions along the Straits that were made by the officers of the Russian fleet during its stay near Constantinople still remain ignored. The “small” expeditions of A.O. Dugamel along the Dardanelles and A.I. Menda along the Bosphorus were designed to compile a topographic description of the area adjacent to the Straits, measure their depth and currents, evaluate Turkish weapons in the fortresses - both in the Straits themselves and at the mouth of the Dardanelles. All these documents, received by topographical engineers and naval officers in the form of maps and detailed descriptions, were transferred to the General Staff and classified as the most valuable information about the state of Turkish weapons and the features of the natural landscape of one of the most important political and strategic regions, which attracted close attention of European powers.

The Crimean Peninsula in modern Russian-Turkish relations

This article examines the impact of the Crimean factor on contemporary Russian-Turkish relations. It assesses and forecasts the development of Russia-Turkey relations in the context of growing tensions between Russia and NATO. An analysis of Turkish projects aimed at manipulating the Crimean Tatar aspect is conducted. In particular, it is shown that Turkey, acting in the "Crimean issue" out of its own long-term interests, objectively becomes an opponent of Russia, which can subsequently lead to an aggravation of confl icts with our country. At the same time, Crimea is increasingly becoming one of the stumbling blocks for the positive long-term development of healthy Russian-Turkish relations. Taking into account Ankara's political pragmatism, it is advisable to proceed from the fact that the removal of this obstacle depends on the speedy positive resolution of the "Ukrainian issue" for Moscow as a whole.

Bandwagoning jako element strategii tureckiej polityki zagranicznej (na przykładzie stosunków rosyjsko-tureckich)

BANDWAGONING AS AN ELEMENT OF TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY (ON THE EXAMPLE OF RUSSIAN-TURKISH RELATIONS)
 Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Turkey and Russia have developed relations at various levels. Trade was one of them, and Russia is one of Turkey’s leading suppliers. Trade in energy carriers occupies a central position in the exchange between the two countries. In addition to these long-term economic factors, a new series of common political interests have emerged in the past few years between Moscow and Ankara, and more specifically between their presidents. The Russian president played his cards wisely when Turkey felt insufficiently supported by the West in the face of international and domestic threats, paradoxically after the Turkish army shot down a Russian jet in 2015 and in the context of the failed coup in Turkey in 2016. The suspicion of both leaders towards the USA and the world of Western values brought them closer to each other, and the aforementioned events made the foundations of Turkish-Russian cooperation take on a personal character. Behaviorism in relations between the two capitals is best seen in the conflict in Syria, Libya and Nagorno-Karabakh.