Russian Colonization Research Articles

Assessment of the Impact of Aviation Passenger Flow on the Economic Activity of a Settlement in Russia

Assessment of the Impact of Aviation Passenger Flow on the Economic Activity of a Settlement in Russia

The horse as a symbol of cultural identity and resistance in Kazakhstan’s colonial history

This article examines the history of Russian colonization in Kazakhstan, focusing on identity, resistance, and independence within Russia’s neo-imperial ambitions. It addresses the socio-political barriers in postcolonial Kazakhstan due to ties with Russia and explores how the Soviet migration policies shaped Kazakhstan’s demographic and political landscape. The study outlines the phases of Russian colonization, contrasting Russian narratives of a civilizing mission with Kazakh perspectives on exploitation and cultural erasure. Using postcolonial theory, it deconstructs these narratives and reveals power dynamics. Kazakh literature and poetry are analyzed as mediums of resistance, emphasizing the horse as a symbol of cultural identity. The article concludes by discussing the post-Soviet cultural transformations and the role of literature in nation-building, highlighting the importance of reclaiming cultural symbols and myths for understanding Kazakhstan’s colonial history and postcolonial transformation.

Disruption of Pastoral Nomadism: The Impacts of Russian Colonialism on the Kazakh Steppe during the 19ᵗʰ and 20ᵗʰ Centuries

This study examines the multifaceted impacts of Russian colonization on the Kazakh Steppes during the 19ᵗʰ and 20ᵗʰ centuries. The colonization process caused significant destruction in various fields in the region, including migration routes, livestock herds, socioeconomic life, trade networks, housing and dietary patterns of nomadic communities. Russian expansionism, aimed at establishing control over the steppe, led to the blockage of ancient migration routes and the restriction of nomadic economic resources. The blockage of migration routes, forced transition to capitalism, forced sedentarization and interaction with sedentary life transformed the livestock herds of the nomads. Socio-economic life and trade were restructured by the Tsardom for reasons such as integration into the Russian Empire market, change of commercial centers and concentration of wealth. The changing structure of pastoral nomadism also led to transformations in housing and diet. Comprehending the complex dynamics of Russian colonialism on the Kazakh Steppe will reveal the destruction of nomadic life by scrutinizing the historical and contemporary sociocultural landscape of the region.

Анализ изменений демографической нагрузки в контексте здорового старения населения страны

The increase in the demographic burden is associated with the ongoing demographic aging of the population, a decline in the birth rate in recent years and an increase in the proportion of elderly people in the total population. The purpose of the study is to analyze the dynamic changes and trends in the demographic burden of the population in the context of healthy aging of the country’s population. Materials and methods. The research materials are limited to the results of the analysis of official statistical information, in particular, for the analyzed period (2009–2023). The following methods were used: statistical, comparative analysis, study and generalization of experience. The obtained data were processed using modern software packages SPSS22 and MS Excel 2007. Results. In the course of this study, statistical data on the demographic burden of the population in urban and rural settlements in Russia were studied, the methodological basis for calculating this indicator was analyzed, the values in different countries of the world were compared, and modern trends in the context of healthy aging of the country’s population were compared. Conclusion. The results of this study can be used in the preparation of medium-term demographic forecasts and state programs aimed at improving the quality of life of the population and creating optimal conditions for the healthy aging of citizens.

To the issue of identifying multi-temporal complexes in urban cultural layer (based on excavations of Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral, Tobolsk Kremlin)

The paper describes archaeological complexes identified among materials of the excavations inside Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral in Tobolsk Kremlin. The archaeological works were imposed on the cape. The cape hosted the town, the Kremlin and, later, the residency of the highly placed clergyman. History of these processes is kept as records. It helps compare the processes with archaeological materials and distinguish multi-temporal complexes among them. The excavations revealed traces of an ancient settlement. The settlement dated back to the early Iron Age – early Middle Ages and had existed long before the town was established. The research apparently identifies the cultural layer dated the late 1500s – middle 1600s. This layer refers to the activities of the first Russian settlers in Siberia. The same period applies to discovered burials of the Orthodox Christian cemetery by the wooden Church of Our Savior. The researchers especially highlight layerings and objects from the construction of brick Sophia-Uspensky Cathedral (late 1600s). They reflect the beginning of stone construction in Siberia. In the excavations, the researchers discovered several brick tombs. These tombs were made for burying highly placed clergymen known by their names. The findings and multi-temporal complexes allow to describe main phases of Troitsky cape development. They also show how the status of this territory changed. The archaeological materials are a valuable source of information about the material culture, funeral rites, stone architecture of both the town and the whole vast Siberian region.

Studies of the cultural layer of the cities of Ufa and Birsk (based on the example of the work of the archaeological expedition of the "Ancient Ufa" museum-reserve)

The article presents the results of an analysis of the latest data of recent years, obtained during archaeological research of the first fortified settlements on the territory of the Republic of Bashkortostan. In the course of the work the analysis reviewed materials from archaeological heritage sites located in the historical center of the modern cities of Ufa (“Hillfort Ufa-II” and “Cultural layer of Ufa dated the late 18th – early 20th century at 29 Sochinskaya street”) and Birsk (“Old Birsk, historical cultural layer and burial ground”). Despite the fact that archaeological sites are subject to a significant anthropogenic influence, the obtained corpus of sources complements the information about the formation of the Russian population and their local tangible culture in chronological terms between 16th and the early 20th century. Studied fragments of pottery revealed differences and features of pottery traditions in the ornamentation, shapes of dishes and additional processing. The materials obtained from the site of Ufa-II indicate local damage (redeposited layer) of the cultural layer and no stratified layers of the New Age. Despite a more significant anthropogenic impact Sochinskaya Street is found with a local patch of preserved cultural layer dated by the period in question. Thus, it will make the reconstruction of the main stages of development of the immediate surroundings of the Ufa Kremlin possible. Alongside it will allow analysis of the adjacent territory. The research on the territory of Birsk documents a good condition of the lower cultural layer of the 17th–18th centuries. The potential of archaeological research of the city lies not only in studying the local features of the tangible culture of the local population, but also in the opportunity to describe the period of the early Russian settlement in Bashkiria in the 16th–18th centuries.

Economic Ties of Russian Settlers and Native Population of Turkestan in the end of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th Centuries

The article analyses the issues of reclaiming of Turkestan by the Russian empire in the second half of the 19th – the beginning of the 20th century by means of creating in the region administrative and military structures as well as by organizing Russian migrant settlements. It was revealed that in the process of organization of urban and rural settlements Turkestan authorities took aim at keeping a distance between native and migrant population. The article characterizes the conditions of granting land parcels for Russian settlers, the different categories and the number of countrymen coming to Turkestan. The article demonstrates various forms of economic interaction of settlers and native people in agricultural activities, everyday life, etc. An accent is put on the changes in the organization of living space under the influence of Turkestan climate peculiarities, different methods of managing agricultural food crops and commercial crops (cotton); the issues of irrigational activities, adoption of farm equipment and particular aspects of everyday life are being analyzed. The author makes a note that the interaction mostly took place in the economic and material spheres, and had fragmentary and episodic character that didn’t lead to cardinal changes in the life of Russian settlers’ community and native people.

The moral and strategic clarity of supporting Ukraine’s self-defense: Why accepting Russian colonialism should remain a taboo

In response to Toal’s article “The Territorial Taboo: Explaining the Public Aversion to Negotiations in the Ukraine War Support Coalition”, I argue that the alleged silencing of those who push for Ukraine’s territorial concessions to Russia is an exaggerated problem. The reason why such voices are not gaining traction is because, as of summer 2024, neither Ukraine nor key European states had a majority in favor of territorial concessions. This is reassuring: it means that there is little appetite for endorsing Russian colonialism and abandoning Ukrainians on the occupied territories to Russian terror in the hope of an illusory “peace”. In contrast to the majority opinion, Toal calls for sacrificing (a part of) Ukraine in order to freeze the conflict and reduce great power tensions. To make such a colonial proposition seem palatable, Toal tries to shift the blame for the continuation of the war from Russia, the aggressor, to Ukraine, the victim. In reality, Ukrainians want peace, just not on Russia’s terms. Any settlement that does not involve the restoration of Ukraine’s territorial integrity is unjust and likely unsustainable. It would give Russia an opportunity to re-arm, extracting resources from the newly occupied Ukrainian territories. Russian officials showed no intention of abiding by any potential agreements with Ukraine, reiterating their goal of destroying the Ukrainian nation and state. Since aggression against Ukraine did not attract widespread opposition within Russia and garnered quite a few enthusiastic supporters, a change in Russian policy seemed improbable as of summer 2024. The continuation of armed resistance against the Russian invasion is Ukraine’s only choice.

Первый храм в Челябинской крепости в контексте сакрализации пространства в ходе русской колонизации Урала и Сибири

The first temple in the Chelyabinsk fortress in the context of the sacralization of space during the Russian colonization of the Urals and Siberia.The article, on the basis of the sources involved, deals in general terms with the main problems of temple building in the frontier zone in the process of Russian colonization of the Urals and Siberia from the late XVI to the 1730s. Sources are acts of record documentation: decrees, orders, reports. The purpose of the article is to analyze the relationship between state and church structures in temple building. The work is done within the framework of cultural history.The main institutions of the colonization process were the structures of the state and the church, the direct actors were peasants, merchants and servicemen of various categories, and the Posad population. The consolidation of Russia in new territories was carried out through the sacralization of space. The starting point in this process was the construction of the first Orthodox church. Initially, the question of building a temple was raised by both the secular authorities and parishioners, depending on the specific situation. Then the functions of establishing the ecclesiastical and administrative structure were delegated by the center to the field.If earlier the chain looked like this: Orthodox first settlers - the center in Moscow - the royal decree in place of the voivode - implementation, execution of the decision on the spot; then a new link appears at the diocesan level in the person of the bishop. This was caused, first of all, by the increasing scale of colonization, the complication of the secular and ecclesiastical-administrative structure. In the record correspondence, the idea of the impossibility of the existence of an Orthodox person without a temple can be traced.To find out the initiators of the nomination of the first temple in the Chelyabinsk fortress, an analysis of the names of the bishops of the Siberian Metropolis, in charge of which the fortress was located, was undertaken; monks of the Assumption Dalmatian Monastery in 1735, whose archimandrite was instructed to lay the church; the heads of the families of the fortress, recorded in the census of 1739 – 1740. From this it was concluded that the "symphony" of the initiative "from above" and the initiative "from below" was made.

Using Parasite Analysis to Investigate the Pathoecology of the Inhabitants of the City of Berezov in Western Siberia (Sixteenth–Nineteenth Centuries)

ABSTRACT The first Russian settlers developed relatively large cities and a new phenomenon called ‘urban habitat’ to the north of Western Siberia. This article presents the results of a study on soil samples taken from the cultural layer of Berezov city during excavations of the city’s kremlin, or civic centre, posad, or town settlement area, and the farmstead within the posad. The samples are dated from the XVI to the end of the XVIII century. Examination of the samples revealed 12 types of parasite eggs from both humans and animals. The city's cultural layer was found to be relatively highly contaminated with parasite eggs. The species composition of parasite eggs in samples collected from the cultural layer varied according to land use, i.e. whether public, communal, or livestock, or sanitary condition in Berezov city. An analysis of historical and archaeological data enabled the reconstruction of certain nutritional aspects of the population in Berezov city at the time. Additionally, certain cultural and abiotic factors contributing to the high parasite infestation of humans and domestic animals were identified, and similarities can be found in the research of other Russian cities of Siberia in the XVI–XIX centuries.

Holocene history of the Kungur forest-steppe (cis-Urals, European Russia): case study Uinskoe mire

The formation and development of the Kungur forest-steppe has been a controversial topic for almost 150 years due to its location within the belt of hemiboreal forests in the pre-Urals of European Russia. To further the knowledge on its manmade versus natural origin we conducted a palaeoecological study reconstructing the regional vegetation history in the Mid-Kama region as well as local bog development and additional archaeobotanical studies nearby. Detailed loss-on-ignition analysis, peat properties and high resolution radiocarbon dating were carried out to obtain long-term carbon accumulation rate estimates. The data document the presence of the pine-dominated forest-steppe with spruce and birch during the major part of the Holocene (∼9.7–5.5 ka) and the development of the modern hemiboreal forests from 5.5 ka onwards. Since 3.5 ka, the hemiboreal forests were increasingly influenced by human action, corresponding to the development of local archaeological cultures. The earliest human impact is observed during the Garinskaya culture (4.5–3.5 ka). It increased during the Early Iron Age with the Ananyino (2.8–2.2 ka) and Glyadenovo (2.2–1.6 ka) cultures and during the Medieval with the Nevolino culture (1.6–1.1 ka). Archaeobotanical data reveal consumption of Triticum aestivum and T. aestivum/spelta by bearers of the Nevolino culture as well as a local cultivation of emmer. The formation of the recent Pinus-Betula forest-steppe took place in the last 300 years during the Russian colonisation. In conclusion, continental and warm climatic conditions as well as fire activities were maintaining semi-open landscapes of the forest-steppe during the Early and Middle Holocene, while land use became the dominant factor since 3.5 ka.

Образование и новые реалии повседневности у горских народов Северного Кавказа во второй половине XIX века

The article examines the changes in the life of the mountain population of the North Caucasus that occurred after the end of hostilities in the region. The emphasis is on the field of education, which received special attention from the authorities. It was assumed that with the help of proper education it would be possible to form law-abiding subjects of the empire, whose example would have a beneficial effect on their relatives and fellow countrymen. The changes taking place were reflected in the everyday life of young people, in their clothing, food, and behavior patterns. For the conservative-minded part of the mountain community, such transformations looked “sinful” and were therefore condemned. Most often it was about people of the older generation who saw this as a threat to national identity. The most consistent critics of the new preferences were the inhabitants of the mountainous regions, who were less involved in economic and cultural ties with the Russian settlers. Those living on the plains of the society accepted innovations more easily and tried to introduce what they considered convenient or emphasizing the high status of a person. Often, hostility to the changes was explained by religious beliefs. There were fears that, under the influence of Russian culture, young people would abandon Islam and begin to profess Christianity.

Pyotr Kostromitinov’s wood collection from Fort Ross: evidence of the early botanical exploration of northern California

Summary Systematic attribution of the wood samples collected in 1830 by Pyotr Kostromitinov, the Manager of Fort Ross, a Russian settlement on the Pacific coast of northern California, has been carried out. As some wood samples belong to the taxa that had not been described at the time of their collection, their labels provide interesting evidence for the first steps of botanical exploration of an exotic flora by the Russian colonists who were not professional naturalists. Particularly, Garrya has been recognized by them as Viburnum, Lyonothamnus as Arbutus, and Torreya as Taxus. In contrast, different species of Ceanothus have been referred not only to this genus, but also to Rhamnus and Laurus. The meanings of some Russian vernacular plant names mentioned in the published historical documents have been clarified. For instance, lavr (laurel) was used not only for California laurel Umbellularia californica, but also for some Ceanothus species (probably C. velutinus). The reference of the vernacular name chaga to Sequoia sempervirens has been confirmed. Unlike most early wood collections, Pyotr Kostromitinov’s samples are made of thin stems and branches with no conspicuous surfaces showing their wood appearance. Such pieces are hardly suitable for demonstration of aesthetic or technical properties of timber. Pyotr Kostromitinov’s samples likely represent one of the earliest cases of collecting wood as objects of particular interest for botany and, more generally, for natural history. It was an important novelty for the 1830s, as the botanical exploration of woods did not have any sufficient conceptual background in those times.

MAP OF SIBERIA GOVERNORATE IN 1765 AS A SOURCE FOR STUDYINGTHE RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF SIBERIA IN PRESENT-DAY NOVOSIBIRSK OBLAST

The paper studies the issue of the chronological order of establishing Russian settlements within the territory of present-day Novosibirsk Oblast in the 18th century. The authors conduct a comparative analysis of the data from the 1765 map of Siberia Governorate with the dates indicated in N. A. Minenko’s monograph “On the Old Moscow Highway”, adjusting the dates of the founding of some settlements as a result. It has also been established that some areas of the region were developed by the Russians a little earlier than previously thought. Another result of the analysis is the discovery of settlements that were not mentioned in the monograph.

MODERN KAZAKH NOVEL: PAINTING AND AESTHETICS OF ARTISTIC DECISION OF THE XX CENTURY

The article examines representations of significant historical events related to the history of Kazakhstan at the beginning of the 20th century in fiction and the aesthetics of artistic decision. The main purpose of the research work is to study historical novels published after the independence of Kazakhstan, which contain events such as persecution, famine and colonial plunder caused by the brutal policies of the Soviet government in the early 20th century. At the same time, the problem of historical knowledge and artistic decision in novels based on historical events of this period is considered. The practical significance of the research topic is that the policy of mass conquest and cleansing of the Russian colonial Kazakh steppe, as well as the permanent expulsion of the people living there from their land, began in the first half of the 19th century. In the 20s of the twentieth century, such absurd policies of the Soviet government as the October Revolution, “Little October” in Kazakhstan, artificial famine called confiscation and mass collective farming, reprisals against the Reds, became the basis of the historical novel. At the same time, it is very important to study novels that describe these significant historical events of the Kazakh people in artistic language. The objective of the research work is to study historical novels that expose the atrocities of the Soviet regime against the Kazakh people. In fulfillment of this duty, among the novels that raised this topic, S. Elubay’s trilogy“Akboz uy”, Beksultan Nurzhekeuly’s novel “ay, dunie-ay” and A. Tarazi’s novel “zhaza” are analyzed. The research method is to name many novels that expose the crimes of the Soviet regime, analyze and summarize their artistic achievements. The article also used research methods such as analysis, comparison and discussion. The novelty of the research result lies in the fact that Russian colonialism is one of the darkest periods in the life of the Kazakh people, years full of terrible suffering that have become indelible history. Historical novels that reveal the reality of this pitiful condition of the people, the crime of this man-made massacre, are deeply analyzed in a comprehensive scientific style with a special theme. And the article also analyzes the relationship and skills of the writer in the one-sided acceptance of historical knowledge and artistic decisions.

КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ КОНТАКТЫ МЕЖДУ РОССИЕЙ И КИТАЕМ НА ДАЛЬНЕВОСТОЧНЫХ ТЕРРИТОРИЯХ В XIX – НАЧАЛЕ XX в.

The paper analyzes the formation and development of cultural relations between Russia and China in the 19th – early 20th centuries in the Far Eastern territories. The issues of the origin of Russian-Chinese cultural interaction, the contact between Russian and Chinese cultures, as well as the peculiarities of contacts between the two ethnic groups are covered. The work uses a historical-chronological research method, which made it possible to trace the formation and development of contacts in the field of culture between the two countries in the Far Eastern border region in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries (from the signing of the Aigun and Beijing treaties to the October Revolution of 1917), as well as a systematic approach, the use of which led to the consideration of cultural ties as a component of the overall system of Russian-Chinese relations at the interstate and interregional levels. Materials in Chinese in the author's translation were introduced into scientific circulation. When studying cultural contacts between the two countries, the concept of sociocultural interaction developed by N.A. Samoilov was applied, which made it possible to analyze the features of relations between the two countries in the field of culture and highlight the forms of interaction. According to the authors, the development of mutual contacts in the field of culture was determined by foreign policy and socio-economic conditions, significant transformations in the political, economic and cultural spheres that took place in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries in the Russian state and the Qing Empire, as well as the meeting of Chinese migration and Russian colonization flows in the Russian Far Eastern borderland. In general, Russian-Chinese sociocultural interaction during the period under study went through several stages, during which the Russian and Chinese peoples mutually recognized each other and learned to interact. At the same time, in the Far Eastern territories at the turn of the century, a contact zone of relations between two ethnic groups was formed, a special environment of Russian-Chinese interaction was formed, and at the same time, the difference between the two cultures and the impossibility of their mixing and mutual assimilation became increasingly obvious.

Как удовлетворённость жизнью зависит от типа населённого пункта?

Life satisfaction is a multidimensional indicator that is influenced by many factors. Studies of national life satisfaction factors provide adequate estimates when countries are homogeneous “macroregions” with common social, cultural, and institutional foundations. However, within large and heterogeneous national states, of which Russia is one, internal regional differences in living conditions can be significant, which means that assessments of happiness levels are dominated by various factors, including the type of human settlement and its inherent characteristics. The conducted research is deepening the understanding of the factors that have a significant impact on subjective life satisfaction in various types of settlements in Russia - cities, towns, and villages. The Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey - Higher School of Economics (RLMS-HSE) was used as the data source. Econometric modeling is based on an ordered logit model with random effects using panel data. We discovered the high significance of subjective evaluation of wealth satisfaction, worried needs, and availability of paid vacations for all Russians, regardless of the type of settlement. The main differences in the set and degree of influence of factors lie along the line separating the values of collectivism and individualism, which are dominant in cities and villages, respectively. There is less concern about health and the possibility of job loss among rural residents reliant on the support of neighbors and family, in which men do not associate life satisfaction with the duration of the working day, and women do not associate life satisfaction with the amount of wage and maternity. In contrast, individualistically oriented residents of cities where nuclear families predominate and connections among people are weak tend to derive life satisfaction from self-realization through earnings, leisure, children, and health care.

An Example of Turkish-Tatar Urbanism in Siberia: Kyzyl Tura

This study examines the geographical location, historical origins, and socio-economic and political dynamics of Kyzyl (Kızıl) Tura, a city situated in Siberia and inhabited by the Turkish-Tatar population. Emir Timur's military expeditions in the second half of the 14th century led to a decline in trade along the Trans-Asian road system and subsequently caused international trade to move to Trans-Siberia. In Siberia, the construction of new Turkish-Tatar cities and the expansion of already existing settlements started at the same time. The main argument of this study is that the presence of the Turkish-Tatar population in Siberia was considerable. Additionally, it suggests that the Turkish-Tatar urbanisation and commercial network played a significant role in the historical development of the region, as exemplified by the case of Kyzyl Tura. The objective of this study is to provide advantages to researchers in the field by demonstrating that the Turkish-Tatar presence in the region, as well as the subsequent changes in demographic and political structures following Russian colonisation, have exhibited variations throughout history. The study engaged in a comparative evaluation of data obtained from primary sources and contemporary literature. The utilisation of Russian chronicles and period maps was done. This study seeks to gather comprehensive information on Kyzyl Tura and provide evidence of Turkish-Tatar urbanism in Siberia through the examination of Kyzyl Tura. Research has demonstrated a deterioration in the transport network and trade after the settlement of Russians in numerous Turkish-Tatar cities in Siberia.

Single-industry cities: social aspects of urban planning policy (as exemplified by the gold-mining city Bodaibo, Irkutsk region)

The article raises the issue of Russian single-industry cities, the social situation and social policy in the city as part of urban planning policy. The main attention is paid to the analysis of the situation at the single-industry cities: social aspects of urban planning policy (as illustrated by the gold-mining city of Bodaibo, Irkutsk region). More than 60 % of the city population is directly or indirectly connected with the gold mining industry. Consequently, Bodaibo can be considered as a single-industry gold-mining city that requires attention from the authorities and a special approach to the urban policy development. The relevance of the study is explained by the fact that there are no systematic comprehensive (including sociological) studies on gold mining cities and settlements in Russia. Purpose of the study: studying the needs of residents of the city of Bodaibo to improve the quality of life in terms of solving social problems and developing proposals to determine the directions of urban planning policy. Research results: in October 2022, the authors of the article conducted a sociological survey of the city Bodaibo residents to identify the satisfaction of citizens with living and working conditions, and to assess the comfort of the environment. It was found that the social conditions in the city are deteriorating: 30 % of citizens noted the quality of life as the worst, more than 60 % of respondents rated the state of social infrastructure as unsatisfactory. Conclusions: weaknesses in the city urban planning policy - lack of comfortable housing, high prices for rental housing for newcomers, poor condition of transport infrastructure, low quality of medical and cultural services. Due to the unresolved social problems, part of the population is leaving the city, the demographic situation is deteriorating. The authors analyzed studies on single-industry towns in other regions of the Russian Federation, got acquainted with the proposed models for solving urgent problems, also relying upon foreign experience. Based on the sociological survey results and acquaintance with the developed concepts for the reorganization of single-industry towns, the authors proposed some steps to improve the urban planning policy in the city of Bodaibo

ONEGIN AND MANAS, VALIKHANOV AND BELINSKY; RUSSIAN LITERARY CRITICISM AND KYRGYZ ORAL POETRY

This paper examines the original context of the words ‘encyclopaedia’ and ‘epic’ concerning Manas. A New Historicism approach to the origin of this association, an 1861 Russian-language publication by Chokan Valikhanov, illuminates his likely use of a formulation - both verbal and conceptual - of literary critic Vissarion Belinsky, and placing Valikhanov’s interest in epics in pan-European (and Russian) early-nineteenth century socio-political context. Valikhanov’s comments display the placing of an interpretative framework from Russian literary criticism onto Kyrgyz oral poetry. This paper questions the continued use of the terminology related to nineteenth-century Russian colonialism and its significant impact on the Manas interpretation and valueing.