Russian Emigration Research Articles

Readers’ letters from abroad, in Russian, addressed to B. L. Pasternak after the publication of his novel “Doctor Zhivago”

The article examines the foreign readers' correspondence to B.L. Pasternak, written in Russian in 1958–1960. The work is based on the materials of the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art. The article lists editions of the novel “Doctor Zhivago” available to western readers in the Russian original (including pirated copies) and in foreign languages. These Russian-language letters are systematized according to the content and purpose of the letter, the sender’s country of residence, the sender’s nationality and cultural affiliation (be it a Russian emigrant or a foreigner who knows Russian). There are noted various opinions of readers about the poetics of the novel “Doctor Zhivago”, their questions about the work, the discussion on the Jewish question and the perception of Pasternak’s own personality among Russian emigration. The author examines Pasternak’s attitude to readers’ letters expressed by him in lyrical and epistolary forms. In addition to readers’ responses, Pasternak's letter to the amateur translator S. Weinberg (1959) is published for the first time.

The image of a rebel writer (based on the novels "The Revolt of Denis Bushuev" by S. S. Maksimov and "The Revolt of the Sunflower" by L.D. Rzhevsky)

The article examines the image of the writer in the novels "The Sunflower Rebellion" by Leonid Rzhevsky and "The Rebellion of Denis Bushuev" by Sergei Maksimov. The subject of the study is the poetics of the image of the writer in the works of major writers of the second wave of Russian emigration. Russian literature is based on the general problems of the novels, the similarity of the destinies of the main characters and the authors belonging to one direction of Russian literature of the XX century – the second wave of Russian emigration. Using the example of the fate of an emigrant writer and a writer of the metropolis, the uprising against the ideological restrictions dictated by the political regime is considered. Special attention is paid to the literary tradition of depicting the hero-creator at the beginning of the 20th century, as well as autobiographical and historical facts that influenced the transformation of the image in question in the work of second-wave emigrants. The methodological basis of the study is an integrated approach that includes biographical, historical, typological and comparative methods. The author's attention is focused on the conflict "artist-power", which is at the center of the novels "The Revolt of Denis Bushuev" and "The Revolt of the Sunflower". The novelty of the study is due to the introduction of previously little-studied material, and for the first time a comparative analysis of novels authored by representatives of the second wave of emigration is presented. As a result of the analysis, the following typological similarities were revealed in the depiction of hero-artists by S.S. Maksimov and L.D. Rzhevsky: the personal experience of the authors lies at the heart of the images of rebellious hero-creators; the main conflict of both works is the aggravation of contradictions between the writer and the authorities; this conflict underlies the creativity of the majority of emigrants of the second wave. Russian literature also proved that the depiction of the literary hero in the works of the second wave of Russian emigration continues the tradition of classical Russian literature in depicting the conflict between the artist and power, but emigrant creativity interprets it in a tragic way.

The Union of Russian Emigrants in Paris: Adaptation and Pro-Russian Activities (with Reference to the Sûreté Générale)

This article presents the results of the examination of the activities of the Union of Russian Workers of France / Union of Soviet Citizens in France in Paris which existed from 1925 to 1929 and acted as one of the most numerous unions of Russian emigrants. Drawing on materials from the archive of the Historical Service of the French Ministry of Defence, prepared by Sûreté Générale in the name of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, the author of the article identifies the purpose of creation and the tasks that the participants of the associations set themselves. The microhistorical approach and the study of the everyday life of Russian emigrants demonstrates that the primary goal was to help compatriots in adapting their life in exile. An analysis of the activities of the members of the union to improve the lives of compatriots made it possible to identify a number of successful examples of the help of the members of the union in solving urgent problems of emigrants. Additionally, the article demonstrates various ways of providing material assistance to those in need, as well as attempts to develop the intellectual culture of Russian emigrants and increase their competitiveness for employment in France. The measures taken by the members of the unions were aimed, among other things, at encouraging Russian emigrants to return to Russia. According to the author, such actions were soft cultural propaganda in favour of the Soviet Union, and these attempts to return emigrants to their homeland yielded results. The article also presents examples of the activities of the members of the union that did not contribute to the successful stay of Russian emigrants in France. The paper presents an example of the activity of the members of the union in appropriating the property of St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, inciting emigrants to rebellion and organising demonstrations demanding the transfer of the church to the USSR Embassy. The result of this activity was a more thorough supervision of the activities of the organisation by the employees of the Sûreté Générale and the repatriation of a few active members of the union. It is concluded that this activity hindered the life of the Russian colony in Paris and did not contribute to its security in France.

Russia Abroad vs Russian Diaspora in the Interwar Period

This article considers a relevant issue of modern historiography, i. e. the expediency of introducing the concept of “Russia Abroad” in the study of Russian emigration of the 1920s–1930s, along with the definition of “diaspora”. The task is complicated by the lack of a unified categorical apparatus and a variety of interpretations. The problem is solved based on structural and constructivist approaches, as well as comparative analysis. The authors propose their own classification of identifying features of the diaspora, highlighting the geographical (territorial), social, political, cultural, and mental blocks. The phenomenon of Russia Abroad is analysed through the prism of diasporisation. The article shows the process of institutionalisation of the Russian emigration of the 1920s, which brings it closer to the diaspora. However, its composition, unlike that of diaspora, was polyethnic. The dominant trend was the preservation of not ethnic but cultural and civic identity, which determined the structure-forming leitmotif of activity aimed at constructing its “Russia Abroad”. However, having renounced the citizenship of Soviet Russia/USSR and recognising the Soviet government as illegitimate, the emigrants unsuccessfully tried to consolidate a legal connection with the state that had disappeared from the political map of the world, trying to defend the old passports. The vectors of reflexive activity with a myth-generating potential were an ostentatious opposition to all things Soviet, the preservation of national identity and traditional values (unlike those born in the revolution), the “ethical code”, social norms, and the justification of the missionary role of emigration. Of the many institutions that claimed to have become a successor authority, the Council of Former Ambassadors headed by M. N. Girs stands out. He concentrated human, financial, material, and organisational potential in his hands and had representation at international organisations, including the League of Nations, in Geneva. The foreign diplomatic corps became the guardian of the idea of all-Russian statehood. Well-established communication links helped him to carry out tasks that were not typical of him, adapted to the new situation and focusing primarily on the settlement of the legal situation of refugees. The article concludes about the consolidating function of both mythmaking and activities aimed at reproducing the attributes of statehood. The Russian “state-like form of being” contributed to the preservation of the Russian language, national identity, and the creation of a system of Russian educational institutions and institutes of historical memory. The doom of Russia Abroad was due to both its conservatism and confrontation with the motherland. The division into two Russias could not carry a positive potential. Foreign Russia can be characterised as a diaspora, but this phenomenon goes beyond even the wide range of identification features that are given to the diaspora today.

Russia That We Recover: Russian Names in Theatrical and Musical Culture of South Africa of the 20th Century

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in Russia in the fate of the compatriots who ended up in Africa at different periods in the country’s history. The topic of Russian emigration to South Africa is of interest to both researchers and a wide range of readers who want to expand their knowledge about the country with which Russia is increasingly cooperating within the framework of the international BRICS association. The article is devoted to immigrants from the Russian Empire and from Russia after the revolution of 1917 and the Civil war, who made a significant contribution to the development of the theatrical and musical culture of South Africa in the 20th century. A particular attention is paid to the creative and social activities of the Runitch couple – Russian silent screen star Ossip Runitch and his wife, Russian ballerina Nina Pavlishcheva.It is noted that the Russian community in this African country was less numerous compared to other communities, nevertheless it made a disproportionately large contribution to the development of the country, including the sphere of culture. Far from their homeland, many of our compatriots were able to adapt to a new cultural environment, while preserving Russian language and culture, elements of which they introduced into their work on the distant African continent.

Russian ballet on the pages of the magazine “Zhar-ptitsa” (1921–1926)

INTRODUCTION. Monthly literary and artistic illustrated magazine “Zhar-ptitsa”, published from 1921 to 1925. in Berlin, in 1926 – in Paris, is a successor to the traditions of such magazines of the early twentieth century as “World of Art”, “Golden Fleece”, and is of scientific value as an additional source of information on the study of the theatrical life of the Russian Abroad. The purpose of the study is to conduct a detailed analysis of the magazine’s articles related to the creative activities of representatives of Russian ballet in exile.MATERIALS AND METHODS. The basis is taken from digitized versions of the magazine, posted in the public domain on the website “Presidential Library named after B.N. Yeltsin”. All 14 “Zhar-ptitsa” magazines were analyzed. Both articles related to the activities of representatives of Russian ballet in emigration, as well as various types of illustrations: photographs, drawings, reproductions, etc., were studied in detail.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. It was revealed that in many issues of the magazine there are no articles devoted to Russian ballet, but there are photographs of ballet dancers in stage costumes and images, drawings related to ballet art, reproductions of sketches for ballet performances, which are also of scientific value in the reconstruction of ballet scenography, the study of this period of history. Four issues of the magazine “Zhar-ptitsa”, no. 1, no. 2, no. 10, no. 11, contain articles dedicated to the art of ballet: the work of M.M. Fokina, A.M. Pavlova, E.P. Eduardova, as well as B.G. Romanov and his choreographic group “Russian Romantic Ballet”.CONCLUSION. Despite the abundance of scientific articles devoted to the periodicals of the first wave of Russian emigration, information related to the history of Russian ballet remains poorly studied. The co nducted research introduces into scientific circulation materials dedicated to Russian ballet, and placed on the pages of the periodical of Russian emigration – “Zhar-ptitsa”. It seems promising to further study the journals of Russian emigration for the analysis of articles related to the history of Russian ballet.

Oblicza samotności w epistolografii rosyjskich emigrantów pierwszej fali

A strong sense of loneliness and alienation was a common feature among Russian emigrants of the first wave, who were suddenly forced to leave the country due to the revolutionary events of 1917 and the civil war. They were unexpectedly deprived of contact with their loved ones and familiar places, losing their common denominator: their homeland. Thrown into a foreign world, they desperately missed their relatives and friends, the sounds of their native language, and the familiar materiality of life. The resulting feeling of loneliness led to various types of problems: lack of adaptation to new socio-cultural realities, social isolation, identity crisis, deteriorating mental and (or) physical condition, and creative impotence. Coping strategies for the traumatic experience of emigration included voluntary ghettoization, linguistic purism, and an extremely active exchange of letters with relatives and friends, which somewhat compensated for the lack of physical contact and direct conversation. Through correspondence, some sought information about loved ones left behind, while others sought deeper understanding, sympathy, and the chance to share their problems and fears. The analyzed epistolary material reveals similarities in the fates of the first wave of Russian emigrants, who, regardless of their origin and financial status, experienced similar problems and emotions. This is evident in the correspondence of both well-known emigrants (Mikhail Arcybashev, Ivan Bunin, Vera Muromtseva-Bunina, Aleksandr Kuprin, Nadezhda Teffi, Boris Zaitsev) and less well-known representatives of the post-October diaspora (Klaudia Fłorovskaya, Alexei Gvozdiński).

Протоиерей Григорий Прозоров (1864-1942) – настоятель Патриаршего прихода в Берлине

The article examines the biography of one of the significant figures of the Russian Orthodox Church of the twentieth century – Archpriest Grigory Yakovlevich Prozorov. After graduating from the Kiev Theological Academy, he was actively engaged in pedagogical and spiritual-educational, as well as socio-political activities, being an adherent of extreme right-wing views. In exile, in Serbia and since 1924 in Germany, Archpriest G. Prozorov remained under the jurisdiction of Metropolitan Evlogiy (Georgievsky), refusing to submit to Bishop Tikhon (Lyashchenko) of the ROCOR. Since 1930, he was the only representative of the Church of the Moscow Patriarchate in Germany, remaining faithful to it until the end of his life. The parishioners of the temples of Archpriest Gregory were famous scientists S. L. Frank and I. A. Stratonov. canonical and property, disagreements between the three branches of Russian Orthodoxy in Germany: ROCOR, "Evlogians" - supporters of Metropolitan Evlogy and the Moscow Patriarchate, on the other hand – in the face of harassment by German punitive authorities, in particular, the Gestapo. The article is based on numerous materials, first introduced into scientific circulation from the Bundesarchiv (Berlin), the Russian State Military Archive and Russian emigrant periodicals in Germany.

Introduction to the Ideological History of Russian Emigration (1917–1991)

The history of Russian emigration of the period of 1917 – 1991 has extensive y historiography primarily due to the fact that the period is characterized by numerous achievements in Russian literature, art, science and culture. The political and media history of Russian emigration is well known and thoroughly studied. There exist also certain reviews of the history of Russian philosophy of this emigration period. However, the summary information on the moral, ideological and socio-political history of Russian emigration is insuffi cient and requires elementary introduction which is very often ignored because of numerous biographical and individual details.

Prayer Motifs and National Consciousness in Changing Conditions of Reception: As Exemplified by the Works of Ivan Shmelev and Boris Zaitsev

This article presents the role of selected motifs of prayer depicted in the works of first-wave Russian emigrants in the creation of a certain type of national mythology. The starting point of the considerations is a reflection on the status of emigrant literature at the time of its creation, during the period of political changes in the Soviet bloc, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and today. From the beginning, émigré literature has served as a certain treasury of images and symbols, which are treated as necessary elements for maintaining the national identity of emigrants. The article presents selected motifs from the works of Ivan Shmelev’s The Year of the Lord and Pilgrimage, and Boris Zaitsev’s Saint Sergius of Radonezh, showing prayer as an element of ritual, as a collective request, and as an act of deep contact with God. The analysis of the selected examples shows that regardless of the literary form, narrative perspective, or the way the subject was presented, the writers showed prayer motifs in a patriotic context, while mythologizing pre-revolutionary Russia and bringing the idea of “Holy Rus” to life. In the years following the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been an increased interest in emigrant literature, and the ideas contained therein have proven to be very important for the formation of the new national consciousness of Russians. Today, due to another political change in Russia and its political isolation, émigré literature is of renewed importance in Russian circles. The writers whose works are discussed in this study are regarded as the main Orthodox writers of the twentieth century, and the image of praying Russia is again the basis for building a new national identity. The study concludes with the observation that the value of emigrant literature should be studied in the context of the time of its creation.

National-territorial unity of the Russian state in the representations of the monarchical emigration of the 1920s

The article analyzes the views of Russian emigrants-monarchists of the 1920s on ways to ensure the unity of Russia. The positions of three main ideological groups of monarchical emigration are considered: right-wing conservative parties, left-wing liberal societies and the center. Special attention is paid to archival materials of the Reichengall Congress of Russian Emigration in 1921 . Various monarchical organizations, despite the difference in views on the future structure of the state, converged on two main ways to ensure national-territorial unity: granting individual regions the rights of national-cultural autonomy together with broad local self-government and the formation of a civil nation.

“Russian Emigres in Volynia during the Reign of Ivan IV”

Abstract In this superb monograph, based upon monumental archival and manuscript research, Konstantin Erusalimskii explores the lives and cultural contributions of Muscovite emigres during the reign of Ivan IV to Volynia, part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and then the Kingdom of Poland. Through case studies of the most prominent emigres, above all Prince Andrei Kurbskii, Erusalimskii examines their social consciousness and cultural contributions, both literary compositions and translation projects. The emigres did not think of themselves as traitors. They remained and were treated by indigenous subjects of Poland-Lithuania as outsiders, “Muscovites.” Among numerous original conclusions Erusalimskii argues that publicist Ivan Peresvetov and printer Ivan Fedorov were one and the sane man, introduces an original, signed letter in Polish from Kurbskii to Herzog Albrecht von Hohenzollern of Brandenburg, and portrays Kurbskii as a Renaissance historian.

Political Activities of Major-General P. F. Ryabikov in Japan and China, 1920—1922

The historical-biographical sketch explores several episodes in the life and activities of a prominent Russian military leader, one of the founders of the intelligence service in the pre-revolutionary Russian army, Major General P. F. Ryabikov (1875-1932). Serving in the White Movement as the 2nd Chief of Staff Quartermaster of A. V. Kolchak’s staff, General P. F. Ryabikov acquired competencies as a curator of military propaganda and organizer of periodical publications, which he later successfully utilized as a leader in these areas of military-political activity within the White emigration in Japan and China. From July 1920 to September 1921, P. F. Ryabikov served in the mission of the Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces of the Russian Far Eastern Territory, Ataman G. M. Semenov, in Yokohama, where he was involved in establishing a network of correspondent-informants for this mission in European countries and the United States, receiving reports and messages about the state of these countries, as well as informing representatives of foreign states in line with the ideology of the Semenovites and publishing anti-Bolshevik literature. In October 1921, at the request of Ataman G. M. Semenov, P. F. Ryabikov transferred his activities to Shanghai, where he continued his assigned work with agent-informants and cooperation in the Russian emigrant press. Having no material and organizational support from G. M. Semenov, Ryabikov severed ties with him in February 1922 and embarked on a path of independent political and journalistic activities.

Thirty Years of Studies on Russian Emigration to Italy

In the last thirty years, studies dedicated to Russian emigration have experienced significant growth. The fall of the Berlin Wall first, and later the collapse of the USSR, allowed scholars to freely access archives, describe and reconstruct the phenomenon from qualitative and quantitative perspectives, and form research groups and networks both nationally and internationally. This article focuses on Italian studies dedicated to Russian emigration in Italy, which, over the past thirty years, have also seen a notable flourishing thanks to the contributions of individual researchers and research groups. Russian studies in Italy have thus aligned with similar initiatives in other countries, developing international projects and research lines in various fields.

Фольклорная символика рассказа И. Бунина «Ворон»

The article is devoted to a poetical analysis of Ivan Bunin’s short story “The Raven” (1944), which is a part of the cycle of short stories about love “Dark Alleys”. The research is undertaken in order to comprehend the role of folklore in the formation of the poetic world of Bunin’s love story, to identify the emotional and aesthetic perspectives of the images, motifs, and the central conflict of the short story, which is contextually conditioned and mediated by folklore symbols. The research is novel in that it is the first to analyze in detail the short story “The Raven”, its character system (images of the father, the son, the daughter, Elena Nikolaevna) and to identify the most important folklore components of the central conflict of the story (a love conflict). As a result, it is shown that the active involvement of folklore symbols (the folklorized concept “The Raven”, a color palette of folklore), which were close and understandable to the Parisian community of Russian emigrants, allowed Bunin (who adhered to national traditions, including folklore ones) to bring additional poetic intentions into the text of the shott story, imbued with imagery familiar from childhood and bright fairy-tale emotionality, to bring the perception of the text created in exile closer to the nostalgic memory of the abandoned homeland of Russia.

Синтез жанровых традиций в романе Юза Алешковского «Кенгуру»

The article is devoted to the analysis of the novel “Kangaroo” by Yuz Aleshkovsky, the largest representative of the “third wave” of Russian emigration, in the context of the traditions of Russian literature, which is explained by the need to identify the key features of the poetics of the writer’s early work, which would largely determine his subsequent writings. The aim of the study is to reveal the specificity of the synthesis of genre traditions in the novel by Yuz Aleshkovsky. The scientific novelty of our work consists in the fact that for the first time in “Kangaroo”, the elements of dystopia, satire, the picaresque novel, and diatribe are revealed and holistically comprehended. As a result, the intertextual connections of “Kangaroo” with “Tarakanishche” by K. I. Chukovsky, “Heart of a Dog” by M. A. Bulgakov, the poem “Kangaroo” by N. S. Gumilev, “1984” by G. Orwell were revealed. It is established that the fragmentary structure of the novel is subordinated to the system of motifs (dystopian and absurdist motifs, the motif of “reversing”) and is built with reliance on the elements of carnival poetics (the trickster as the protagonist passing through a series of miraculous and provocative situations; images of “material-bodily bottom” opposing the “official” culture; carnivalization of the plot and the very process of narration; the use of substandard vocabulary).

Shock Wave of Russian Emigration and Self-Reflection of Its Representatives

This essay introduces the notion of the shock wave of Russian emigration, applicable to those Russian citizens who strongly opposed the outbreak of military aggression against Ukraine and chose to leave Russia within the first weeks of the beginning of the fullscale invasion on February 24, 2022. Based on the data collected from in-depth interviews, the study of the shock wave gives an overview of the spectrum of the respondents’ personal motivations for leaving the country, fears and expectations that were driving them, and their deeper reflection on their experiences where metaphors and imagery play a very prominent role.
 Text in English

Igor Ogurtsov: A Visionary Orthodox Thinker Ahead of His Time

Based on the author’s collected memories of participants in the events described, memoirs, journalistic articles published in Russian and Russian emigrant publications, as well as on the documentary materials of the classified court proceedings that took place in Leningrad in 1967–1968, the article recounts the history and ideology of the underground anti-communist organization — the All-Russian Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People (VSKhSON). The publication focuses on the fate of the founder of the All-Russian Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People, the outstanding Russian Orthodox thinker Igor Vyacheslavovich Ogurtsov, who, in the early 1960s, along with a group of his associates, advocated for the synthesis of Christianity, patriotism, and social ideas against the communist system. Particular attention is given to the Program of the All-Russian Social Christian Union for the Liberation of the People. Written by Igor Ogurtsov 60 years ago, it remains relevant today in both scientific and political contexts. The author of the Program, while analyzing the communist system, not only predicted the inevitability of communism’s collapse but also proposed a specific path for the rebirth of Russia after the fall of the “party dictatorship” — a path rejecting the extremities of both socialist and capitalist perspectives and implying the country’s further development based on the principles of sociality and Christian ideals.

THE RUSSIAN TOOGEN. RESETTLEMENT POLICY OF THE JAPANESE-MANCHURIAN AUTHORITIES IN RELATION TO RUSSIAN EMIGRATION: 1943-1945

This article examines the resettlement policy of the Japanese-Manchurian authorities in relation to Russian emigrants in Manchuria. Japan's difficult economic situation during the Second World War forced it to use all opportunities to replenish resources. One of the important regions for the Japanese military industry was Manchuria. The Manchurian state, established in 1932, was supposed to provide the metropolitan country with everything necessary. The situation of the local population began to deteriorate significantly. In an effort to improve economic performance in agriculture and the situation of residents of large cities in Manchuria, a policy of resettlement to rural areas has been implemented. This policy has affected both Japanese and Manchus, Koreans and Russian emigrants. The article examines how the policy of resettlement of Russian emigrants to the northern regions of Manchuria was justified, the activities of emigrant administrative bodies to conduct resettlement policy, the life of emigrants in the settlements they created, and the assessment of the resettlement policy of the Japanese-Manchurian authorities is given.

Семеновы-Знаменские в Харбине. Материалы к биографии

Continuity of generations is a very serious issue for Harbin residents. Harbin residents have always tried to preserve the memory of their ancestors. Preserving the history of Russian emigration has a high relevance of the problem. The history of many Russian families is connected with Harbin, where there was the largest Russian diaspora. Nowadays this city is the administrative center of the Chinese province of Heilongjiang. We should not forget about the people who built the Chinese Eastern Railway, as well as about the Russian emigrants who lived in Harbin, but kept the image of Russia in their hearts and contributed enough to Russian culture and science. The purpose of this paper is to study the Russian emigrants life in Harbin and to restore contact with their descendants. The article uses historical and system analysis and bibliographic research method. The paper tells about the amazing life of Nikolai Nikolaevich Znamensky: his childhood in Harbin, his relatives, his move to the USSR, his admiration of nowadays China, and also focuses on the message of Nikolai Nikolaevich Znamensky to modern Harbin residents.