Rural-urban Inequality Research Articles

Развитие торговой инфраструктуры в контексте физической доступности продовольствия гражданам России: город – село

The article contains a comparative analysis of the physical availability of food in urban and rural areas characterized by the development of retail trade and catering infrastructure. Specific (based on the population unit) indicators are used not only for retail space, but also for the number of retail facilities, which is especially important for assessing the spatial placement of retail and its pedestrian and transport accessibility. The development of public catering is characterized by specific indicators of the number of public catering facilities in rural settlements and their capacity by the number of seats. The statistical characteristics of the development of the distribution network are supplemented by data from a sample survey of urban and rural populations on the main places and forms of food purchase. The development of the road network in rural areas is characterized as a factor that largely determines the physical accessibility of retail facilities. It is concluded that there is a large ruralurban inequality in the realization of the population's payment demand for food products. Measures to increase the physical accessibility of food to the rural population are proposed.

Rural bioeconomies in Europe: Socio-ecological conflicts, marginalized people and practices

Bioeconomy policies claim to contribute to socio-ecological transformations and decreasing rural-urban inequalities. Based on examples of four bioeconomies in rural Europe, we argue that contrary to these claims, such policies to date have not de-escalated existing social conflicts but instead have often further contributed to polarization tendencies. To live up to those proclaimed goals, bioeconomy research and policy need to deprioritize economic growth and turn to more comprehensive considerations of socio-ecological contexts and the integration of the local population and alternative practices.

The impact of technology and finance on urban-rural income inequality

Based on the panel data of 30 provinces, cities directly under the jurisdiction of the central government (except for Tibet) and regional autonomous areas from 2011 to 2020, this paper uses the entropy method to measure the index of science and technology finance, and applies the double-fixed model to explore the impact of science and technology finance on urban-rural income inequality. The empirical results show that: (1) Technology finance has a U-shaped influence on rural-urban income inequality. (2) The greater the gap between urban and rural financial development levels will increase urban-rural income inequality; the greater the gap between higher education levels and health care institutions will decrease urban-rural income inequality significantly. (3) There is a heterogeneity in the impact of science and technology financial development on rural-urban income inequality; science and technology finance in the eastern and western areas will have a U-shaped impact on rural-urban income inequality, while science and technology finance in the central area will have an inverted U-shaped impact on rural-urban income inequality. Based on this, this paper offers some suggestions for the development of science and technology finance in China to further reduce rural-urban income inequality.

Can rural e-commerce narrow the urban–rural income gap? Evidence from coverage of Taobao villages in China

PurposeThe digital economy is expected to revive the countryside and reduce the current level of urban–rural inequality. Nevertheless, whether rural e-commerce can narrow the urban–rural income gap still requires further analysis. The purpose of this paper is to clarify whether this goal is, in fact, being achieved.Design/methodology/approachTaobao villages have become the epitome of rural e-commerce development in China. Therefore, this paper matches the data of Taobao villages and the data of prefecture-level cities from 2014 to 2019, and employs a two-way fixed effect model, nonlinear model, instrumental variable model and interactive fixed effects model to explore the impact of rural e-commerce on the urban–rural income gap.FindingsFirstly, the ability of urban residents to share rural e-commerce development is higher than that of rural residents, which actually widens the urban–rural income gap. Secondly, the migration to cities of rural families that have profited from e-commerce, and the return of working-class people to the countryside, are two factors that are contributing to the widening of the urban–rural income gap. Thirdly, the farther the distance from the urban area and the higher the spatial agglomeration of the rural e-commerce cluster is, the weaker the impact on widening the urban–rural income gap will be. Finally, while industrial-led rural e-commerce is responsible for widening the urban–rural income gap, agricultural-led rural e-commerce has no significant impact on the urban–rural income gap.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, this paper is the first to analyze the impact of rural e-commerce on the urban–rural income gap from the perspective of the coverage of Taobao villages. This empirical study will enrich existing theoretical perspectives on urban–rural integration under the backdrop of the digital economy.

Direct and indirect consumption activities drive distinct urban-rural inequalities in air pollution-related mortality in China

Direct and indirect consumption activities drive distinct urban-rural inequalities in air pollution-related mortality in China

Energy and Environmental Justice in China: Literature Review and Research Agenda

Energy and environmental justice (EEJ) is an interdisciplinary field of study that examines the social, economic, and political dimensions of energy and environmental transitions. Studying EEJ in China is crucial as the country accelerates its transition towards environmental sustainability and carbon neutrality, highlighting the need for the development of more equitable energy and environmental policies. This paper offers a comprehensive review of academic research on EEJ in the Chinese context. Our review indicates that Chinese EEJ scholarship has identified instances of injustice in China's energy and ecological transitions and highlighted specific characteristics, including regional disparities, urban-rural inequality, and the disproportionate impact on migrant populations. However, the tendency to apply Western justice principles (e.g., distributive, recognition, and procedural justice) undermines the appreciation of the diverse and contextual interpretations of justice-related research in China. Furthermore, there is a lack of critical justice research that explores the root causes of injustice in China. The review suggests that future research can advance theoretical development by conducting cross-cultural studies, while also adopting a more critical approach that foregrounds the role of power in reproducing injustice. This review is useful for those interested in researching the social justice dimensions of energy and ecological transitions in China.

The relevance of reducing income inequality for eliminating urban-rural divide in clean cooking fuel accessibility: Evidence from Latin America and the Caribbean

Alongside switching from the use of unclean to clean cooking fuels, reducing the urban-rural inequality in clean cooking fuel accessibility has become a major concern for developing countries, in particular. Hence, this study explores the factors influencing this clean cooking fuel accessibility divide across urban and rural areas in 14 Latin American and Caribbean countries. Overall, the results certify that worsening incidences of income inequality aggravate the urban-rural inequality in clean cooking fuel accessibility by respectively improving and deteriorating urban and rural clean cooking fuel access rates. Besides, institutional quality improvement is found to reduce this inequality by exerting a relatively higher clean cooking fuel accessibility-improving impact in rural areas. Moreover, influxes of international remittances are evidenced to reduce this inequality, especially by improving rural clean cooking fuel access rates. By contrast, technological innovation worsens urban-rural inequality in clean cooking fuel accessibility by enhancing and inhibiting clean cooking fuel access rates in urban and rural areas, respectively. Furthermore, heterogeneous findings are obtained when sub-samples of regional and income group categories are used for analytical purposes. Therefore, considering all these findings, it is highly recommended that the concerned nations adopt innovative income inequality-reduction policies, promote international migration of labor, improve institutional quality, and develop clean cooking fuel accessibility-enhancing technologies.

Socioeconomic and urban-rural inequalities in the population-level double burden of child malnutrition in the East and Southern African Region.

Socioeconomic and urban-rural inequalities in the population-level double burden of child malnutrition threatens global nutrition targets 2025, especially in East and Southern Africa. We aimed to quantify these inequalities from nationally representative household surveys in the East and Southern African region. 13 Demographic and Health Surveys between 2006 and 2018 including 72,231 children under five years old were studied. Prevalence of stunting, wasting and overweight (including obesity) were disaggregated by wealth quintiles, maternal education categories and urban-rural residence for visual inspection of inequalities. The slope index of inequality (SII) and the relative index of inequality (RII) were estimated for each country. Regional estimates of child malnutrition prevalence and socioeconomic and urban-rural inequalities were generated from pooling country-specific estimates using random-effects meta-analyses. Regional stunting and wasting prevalence were higher among children living in the poorest households, with mothers with the lowest educational level and in rural areas. In contrast, regional overweight (including obesity) prevalence was higher among children living in the richest households, with mothers with the highest educational level and urban areas. This study indicates pro-poor inequalities are present in child undernutrition and pro-rich inequalities are present in child overweight including obesity. These findings re-emphasise the need for an integrated approach to tackling the population-level double burden of child malnutrition in the region. Policy makers must target specific populations that are vulnerable to child malnutrition, to avoid further widening of socioeconomic and urban-rural inequalities.

Contributing factors for urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for family planning among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia: a Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis

BackgroundUnmet need for family planning (FP) is a global public health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In Ethiopia, although several studies have assessed unmet needs for FP, there have only been few empirical investigations into regional inequalities and their contributory factors. This study assessed urban-rural inequalities in unmet FP needs among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia and particularly examined the contribution of material, cultural-behavioral, and psychosocial factors therein.MethodsA cross sectional study was conducted among 8811 reproductive-aged women derived from the nationally representative 2019 Ethiopian Performance Monitoring for Action (PMA) data. The outcome variable was unmet need for FP. The exposure variable was place of residence (urban or rural). Contributing factors were categorized into material, psychosocial and cultural-behavioral factors. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition analysis was used to assess urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for FP as well as to disentangle the contributory factors in percentage points.ResultIn our study, 13.8% of reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia reported unmet FP needs. Urban-rural inequalities therein accounted for 6.8% points. Disparities in FP needs between urban and rural areas were mostly explained by psychosocial factors (81.0%) followed by material (21.0%), and cultural-behavioral (3.2%) factors. While women who were living with a partner (39.1%, p < 0.01) and multiparas (51%, p < 0.01) contributed to increasing inequalities, attending family planning counseling services with a healthcare provider (-1.7%, p = 0.03) reduced the gap in unmet need for FP between urban and rural areas. Women from the poorest and poor category contributed 14.1% (p = 0.02) and 11.1% (p = 0.04), respectively. Being from a Muslim religion also contributed to the disparity by 7.3% (p < 0.01).ConclusionThis study showed that among reproductive-aged women in Ethiopia, inequalities in unmet FP needs show distinct urban-rural patterning. Most inequalities could be attributed to psychosocial factors, mainly parity and marital status, followed by material and cultural-behavioral factors. Policymakers should target these modifiable psychosocial factors to reduce urban-rural inequalities in unmet need for FP in Ethiopia.

Comparison of inequality in utilization of maternal healthcare services between Bangladesh and Pakistan: evidence from the demographic health survey 2017–2018

BackgroundInequality in maternal health has remained a challenge in many low-income countries, like Bangladesh and Pakistan. The study examines within-country and between-country inequality in utilization of maternal healthcare services for Bangladesh and Pakistan.MethodsThe study used the latest Demographic Health Surveys (DHS, 2017–2018) datasets of Bangladesh and Pakistan for women aged 15–49 years who had given at least one live birth in three years preceding the survey. Equity strata were identified from the literature and conformed by binary logistic regressions. For ordered equity strata with more than two categories, the relative concentration index (RCI), absolute concentration index (ACI) and the slope index of inequality (SII) were calculated to measure inequalities in the utilization of four maternal healthcare services. For two-categories equity strata, rate ratio (RR), and rate difference (RD) were calculated. Concentration curves and equiplots were constructed to visually demonstrate inequality in maternal healthcare services.ResultsIn Bangladesh, there was greater inequality in skilled birth attendance (SBA) based on wealth (RCI: 0.424, ACI: 0.423, and SII: 0.612), women’s education (RCI: 0.380, ACI: 0.379 and SII: 0.591), husband’s education (RCI: 0.375, ACI: 0.373 and SII: 0.554) and birth order (RCI: − 0.242, ACI: − 0.241, and SII: -0.393). According to RCI, ACI, and SII, there was inequality in Pakistan for at least four ANC visits by the skilled provider based on wealth (RCI: 0.516, ACI: 0.516 and SII: 0.738), women’s education (RCI: 0.470, ACI: 0.470 and SII: 0.757), and husband’s education (RCI: 0.380, ACI: 0.379 and SII: 0.572). For Bangladesh, the RR (1.422) and RD (0.201) imply more significant urban–rural inequality in SBA. In Pakistan, urban–rural inequality was greater for at least four ANC visits by the skilled provider (RR: 1.650 and RD 0.279).ConclusionInequality in maternal healthcare is greater among the underprivileged group in Pakistan than in Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, the SBA is the most inequitable maternal healthcare, while for Pakistan it is at least four ANC visits by the skilled provider. Customized policies based on country context would be more effective in bridging the gap between the privileged and underprivileged groups.

Internet use and rural-urban mental health inequalities: Evidence from China.

In the context of the new digital era, clarifying the relationship between Internet use and urban and rural residents' mental health is of important value for reducing rural-urban health inequalities. This paper aims to study the association between Internet use and rural-urban mental health inequalities. Based on the data of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) in 2020, we firstly examined the existence and specific manifestation of mental health inequalities between urban and rural residents. Secondly, we examined the mediating effect of Internet use by the Bootstrap mediating effect measure. Finally, we verified the robustness of the mediating effect. There are significant mental health inequalities between urban and rural residents, and urban residents have better mental health than rural residents (p < 0.01). In addition, the test results for the mediating effect of Internet use on mental health inequalities between urban and rural residents were significant (p < 0.01), with a direct effect of -0.028 (p < 0.01) and an indirect effect of -0.49 (p < 0.01), and this result remained significant in the robustness test. In such a new age of the Internet, mental health inequalities between urban and rural residents objectively did exist, and the use of the internet played a positive mediation effect on the formation of mental health inequalities between urban and rural areas.

Per capita CO2 emission inequality of China's urban and rural residential energy consumption: A Kaya-Theil decomposition

With the increasing affluence, the differences in CO2 emission between urban and rural residential sectors are remarkable and show an increasing trend. In case of China, residential sector accounts for a substantial share of the national CO2 emission, bringing greater pressure to achieve the goal of carbon peak. Analyzing the emission inequality trend and its drivers is essential for formulating effective CO2 emission reduction policies. However, the existing literature lacks relevant analysis from the viewpoint of urban-rural disparity. Hence, this study decomposes the CO2 emission inequality of China's urban and rural residential consumption into four factors by combining the Theil index and Kaya decomposition. The results suggest that, in 2005–2020, the per capita CO2 emission of rural residential consumption increased to a higher extent than those of urban households, with large differences in spatial distribution. Decomposition of the per capita CO2 emission inequality for residential sector shows that the primary source is the inequality within the groups, mainly from the urban intra-group inequality. Based on the static decomposition, energy intensity appears as the main factor of urban–rural inequality. The dynamic decomposition shows that there have been differences in the factors of the change in the Theil index between urban and rural areas across sub-periods.

ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN NEW PARADIGM TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (A CASE STUDY OF LAHORE)

The environmental scenario of City of Gardens is quite haze due to the presence of relentless perils. High density livings; due to break down of community and mass exodus of villagers from rural hinterland to urban centres, rural urban inequalities, presence of industry, increased car ownership trend and commercial activity at core of city are driving forces behind environmental degradation in metropolitan area of Lahore. These forces put lives of urbanites at risk and resultantly 1250 people are dying annually because of air pollution in the city of Lahore. Intolerable congestion, squatter development, growth of motorized vehicles and process of reconstruction to accommodate more and more commercial activity are common consequences of urban densification in Lahore. Sustainable solution of situation cannot be achieved without identification and address of foremost cause of environmental degradation. In this connection null hypotheses are made and testified. The paper highlights methodology of quantifying environmental degradation and to probe into its tended relations with other parameters. Based on the results different measures to reduce environmental degradation are recommended.

Residential responses to service-specific electricity demand: Case of China

Understanding the diversity of the residential demand for various electrical services is critical for utilities and policymakers in conducting effective demand side management and narrowing urban-rural inequality. Previous research has usually treated the household as a unit of analysis, and thus may have ignored the fact that household electricity consumption is derived demand driven by specific services, which fails to examine the heterogeneous behavioral responses. Therefore, this paper presents a new pattern of residential demand for various electrical services and quantifies the impacts of socioeconomic determinants in China. The conditional demand analysis is performed on the unique dataset of the Chinese Residential Energy Consumption Survey of 2014 to estimate the electricity demand distribution in eight types of services and to investigate the effect of socioeconomic variables on service-specific electricity consumption. The results show that, together, entertainment and food refrigeration account for about half of the total annual electricity consumption, followed by laundry, lighting, space cooling, and hot water. Rural households use about 7.2% of total electricity for cooking purposes, while urban counterparts hardly use electricity to cook at all. Electricity consumption for space heating is negligible for both urban and rural households. Heterogeneity in socioeconomic determinants is found not only among different electrical services but also between urban and rural households.

Factors explaining rural-urban learning achievement inequalities in primary education in Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Cameroon

What explains rural-urban learning inequalities is still under debate. This study investigates factors that account for learning inequalities in Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, and Cameroon and then explores patterns of similarities across the four countries. It employs the Program for the Analysis of CONFEMEN Education Systems (PASEC) data which it analyzes using recentered influence function decomposition. Findings suggest that for all countries, tangible and intangible factors explain between 51.10% and 48.9% of the learning inequality at the mean, respectively. The decomposition across the distribution reveals that tangible factors explain between 41.50% and 65.3% of the learning inequality, which implies that intangible factors explain between 34.7% and 58.5% of the disparity. The cross-country analysis at the mean reveals that tangible factors explain between 45.60% and 69.1% of the rural-urban learning gap and intangible ones between 30.9% and 54.4%. Across the distribution, tangible factors account for the gap between 17% and 96.40% and intangible ones between 3.6% and 83%. Across the countries investigated, the gap is explained more by school-related factors. Implications of the findings are discussed in the article.

Desigualdades na cobertura vacinal infantil: potenciais lições do caso da Guiné-Bissau

Immunization is one of the main interventions responsible for the decline in under-5 mortality. This study aimed to assess full immunization coverage trends and related inequalities, according to wealth, area of residence, subnational regions, and maternal schooling level in Guinea-Bissau. Data from the 2006, 2014, and 2018 Guinea-Bissau Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) were analyzed. The slope index of inequality (SII) was estimated by logistic regression for wealth quintiles and maternal schooling level as a measure of absolute inequality. A linear regression model with variance-weighted least squares was used to estimate the annual change of immunization indicators at the national level and for the extremes of wealth, maternal schooling level, and urban-rural areas. Full immunization coverage increased by 1.8p.p./year (95%CI: 1.3; 2.3) over the studied period. Poorer children and children born to uneducated mothers were the most disadvantaged groups. Over the years, wealth inequality decreased and urban-rural inequalities were practically extinguished. In contrast, inequality of maternal schooling level remained unchanged, thus, the highest immunization coverage was among children born to the most educated women. This study shows persistent low immunization coverage and related inequalities in Guinea-Bissau, especially according to maternal schooling level. These findings reinforce the need to adopt equity as a main principle in the development of public health policies to appropriately reduce gaps in immunization and truly leave no one behind in Guinea-Bissau and beyond.

Urban-rural inequalities and spatial arrangement of informed choice of family planning in Ethiopia: Further analysis of 2016 Ethiopian demographic health survey.

Ethiopia has made satisfactory progress in improving maternal and child health over the past two decades. The introduction of family planning through informed choice is one of the main strategies to improve maternal and child health. However, this positive progress may have masked the significant urban-rural disparities in informed choice for family planning. To identify factor contributing to observed urban-rural disparities and to determine the spatial distribution of informed family planning choices in Ethiopia. The study used information from 3,511 women currently using contraceptives (rural-2685 and urban-826) as per recent Ethiopian demographic health survey cross-sectional data. Spatial and descriptive, bivariable, and multivariable logit-based decomposition analysis methods were used. The spatial configuration of uninformed choice was clustered. The primary cluster (LLR = 34.8, p-value<0.001) was located at the southern portion of Amhara region that covers east & west Gojjam, south Gondar and south Wollo administrative zones. The magnitude of informed choice was 12 percent higher in urban residents compared to rural residents. Urban-rural gap was attributed to variations in characteristics (74%). Place of family planning offer i.e., private health facility, being aged between 35 and 49 years, and having visited to health facility in the last 1 year are found decrease the urban-rural gap of informed family planning choice by 15%, 9% and 5% respectively. Conversely, being aged between 25 and 34 years, being a listener to radio has increased the gap by 9% and 12% respectively. The variables being private health facility visitors, being aged between 35 and 49 years and having visited health facilities in the last one year are found to increase the gap of informed family planning choices between urban and rural residents Besides, the spatial distribution of uninformed family planning choices is non-random.

Residential inequalities in child mortality in Ethiopia: Multilevel and decomposition analyses

Ethiopia is among the five countries which account for half of the global under-five deaths, with the under-five mortality rate of 67 deaths/1000 live births in 2016. Ethiopia had significant inequalities in child mortality between rural and urban areas where the risk of child mortality is largely higher in rural than urban areas. Inequalities in the distribution of factors influencing child mortality need to explain the gap between and within urban-rural areas. The study used the risk of child mortality as an outcome variable. Multilevel logistic regression was used as a standard model for assessing the effect of socioeconomic and contextual factors on child mortality. Furthermore, the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition technique was used to explain the urban-rural, intra-rural, and intra-urban inequalities in child mortality. The birth order and sanitation type seem to be the most important explanatory factors, followed by wealth status in explaining the rural-urban inequality of 39 deaths/1000 children. Mean proportion indicates that there would be 47 deaths/1000 children for urban poor and 21 deaths/1000 children for urban non-poor, resulting in 26 deaths/1000 children change in urban poor when applying the urban non-poor coefficient and characteristics to urban poor behavior. The findings showed that some residential inequalities in child mortality occur at a level that could be addressed by targeting children, households, and some occurs at a community level that could be addressed by targeting regions. Therefore, any residential sensitive and specific interventions should consider child’s and household’s characteristics, and geographical location.

What Are the Regional Challenges for Inclusive Distance Education During COVID-19 Pandemic in Turkey? A Qualitative Analysis

Inclusive education has come to the agenda again due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, research on rural-urban inequality in inclusive education during COVID-19 pandemic is limited. This study aims to reveal the regional challenges for inclusive distance education during COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey. We adopted qualitative research design and a case study model. We chose two different study group among undergraduate students both living in disadvantaged rural areas and living in socio-economically advantageous cities. The participants were 38 undergraduate students. This qualitative study was performed in 2021-2022 academic year. The results revealed that there were notable differences between the two groups’ views on the inclusiveness and effectiveness of distance education. The first group reported the challenges stemmed from disadvantaged economic conditions. The second group reported the problems such as lack of motivation, stress, mental fatigue, and trouble focusing. Distance education is seen non-inclusive and ineffective by the first group. The second group evaluates distance education as inclusive and sufficient. The participants also made suggestions to increase inclusiveness of distance education.

Rural-Urban Healthcare Access Inequality Challenge: Transformative Roles of Information Technology

Rural-urban healthcare access inequality refers to a disparity between rural and urban people with severe medical ailments in gaining access to the high-quality healthcare services they need. Although much hope has been pinned on the use of health information technology (HIT) to alleviate this critical and enduring societal challenge, the realized societal impact of HIT is unclear. Anchoring on both social transformation theory and affordance actualization theory, we conducted an in-depth qualitative study with two rounds of data collection in China. In addition to investigating how the societal challenge has triggered transformative HIT interventions, our analysis contributes to a theory on an HIT solution for the rural-urban healthcare access inequality challenge by establishing a link between HIT affordances and HIT interventions. This is done by examining how microlevel HIT effects escalate to macrolevel HIT effects through societal-level affordance actualization, which can affect this healthcare access inequality challenge. Along with providing policy implications on introducing HIT solutions to address intricate and complex societal challenges, this study extends existing theories by revealing the adaptation of the HIT intervention and differentiating the effects of collective and shared affordances.