Urban-rural Gap Research Articles

The wall between urban and rural: How does the urban-rural electricity gap inhibit the human development index

Based on the Instrumental Variables - Generalized Method of Moments (IV-GMM) model, this paper explores the relationship, heterogeneity, and mechanisms between the urban-rural electricity gap and the human development index for 176 countries during 2000–2020. The key findings are as follows: (1) Urban-rural electricity gap is harmful to the improvement of the human development index; an enlarged gap in electricity accessibility between urban and rural is detrimental to sustainable human development. (2) Urban-rural electricity gap is more harmful to the increase of human development index in low-income countries and low governance efficiency countries. Also, the heterogeneity exists in different quantiles, and their nexus is closer in countries with lower levels of human development index. (3) Income inequality and energy poverty act as mechanisms, which means that the urban-rural electricity gap inhibits the human development index by exacerbating income inequality and energy poverty.

Age, period, cohort effects in trends of depressive symptoms among middle-aged and older Chinese adults.

To investigate the effects of age, period, and cohort on the trends of depression; and to examine the influence of these three temporal effects on residential disparities in depression. Using data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) during 2011 to 2020, involving 77,703 respondents aged 45 years old and above. The measurement of depressive symptoms was the score of 10-question version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D 10). The hierarchical age-period-cohort cross-classified random effects models were conducted to examine trends in depressive symptoms related to age, period and cohort. CES-D scores increased with age and slightly decreased at older age. The cohort trends mostly increased except for a downward trend among those born in 1950s. As for the period effect, CES-D scores decreased gradually from 2011 to 2013 followed by a upward trend. Rural residents were associated with higher level of depression than those live in urban area. These residence gaps in depression enlarged before the age of 80, and then narrowed. The urban-rural disparities in CES-D scores gradually diminished across cohorts, while the corresponding period-based change in urban-rural gaps was not significant. When age, period, cohort factors are considered, the age effects on depression dominated, and the period and cohort variations were relatively small. The residence disparities in depression reduced with successive cohorts, more attention should be paid to the worsening depression condition of younger cohorts in urban areas.

Research on the Impact of China's 'Double-Reduction' Policy on Urban and Rural Education

The Chinese government has implemented several education reform policies in recent years, including the 'Double-Reduction' policy. This policy aims to reduce the academic burden on students and the excessive competition from out-of-school training organizations. However, the disparity between urban and rural education in China has been a highly controversial topic, and the implementation of the 'Double-Reduction' policy has brought about different impacts on students in different regions. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of the impact of the 'Double-Reduction' policy on different regions and populations, and explores the current challenges of China's education reform from four perspectives: academic pressures, educational resources, educational quality, and students' opportunities for future development. Achieving equity in education through the 'Double-Reduction' policy requires comprehensive consideration of the urban-rural education gap, and increased investment in and support for rural education resources while reducing the schoolwork burden on students. The implementation of the policy and the fulfilment of educational equity are ensured under a monitoring and evaluation mechanism.

Research on the Development of New-Quality Productivity to Promote Digital Rural Construction under the Background of Rural Revitalization Strategy

With the continuous improvement of China's economic level, the main social contradictions have shifted, and people's demand for a better life has been rising. On one hand, for rural residents, the desire to build beautiful villages, achieve modern rural development, and narrow the urban-rural gap has become increasingly strong. On the other hand, the continuous progress of the digital economy and digital technology has brought new changes to rural development. How to utilize digital technology to promote the development of new-quality productivity in rural areas and promote rural revitalization has become a new era issue. Digital rural construction is the only way for further rural development and modernization. Therefore, relevant research on digital rural development is of great significance. Against the backdrop of the digital technology revolution, new-quality productivity represents the deep integration of technology and production and is the core driving force of the modernization process. It not only changes the development model of industry and services but also deeply penetrates the agricultural and rural fields, providing strong support for digital rural construction. The report of the 20th National Congress of the Communist Party of China pays special attention to the "three rural" issues (agriculture, rural areas, and farmers), emphasizing the importance of "three rural" work in the new era. Digital rural construction, in this context, is endowed with special strategic significance. New-quality productivity, centered on technological innovation, opens up a new path for agricultural modernization development. Therefore, an in-depth analysis of digital rural construction, from its core concepts, existing problems to the exploration of practical paths, has certain theoretical and practical significance for understanding the actual role of new-quality productivity in the agricultural and rural areas. In light of this, this paper aims to explore the application of new-quality productivity in digital rural construction, analyze its transformation logic in rural development, address key issues in digital rural construction, and play a specific role in practical paths, providing theoretical support and suggestions for relevant policy formulation and implementation.

Can Digital Finance Narrow the Gap between Urban and Rural Areas?

As China continues to promote the integrated development of urban and rural areas and financial digital transformation, digital finance, as one of the five chapters of the financial industry to accelerate the formation of new quality productivity, has become an increasingly hot issue to narrow the gap between urban and rural development and help urban-rural integrated development. By combing and analyzing the related research between domestic digital finance and urban-rural gap, this paper comprehensively summarizes the research conclusions of the correlation between digital finance and urban-rural gap, and makes an in-depth analysis of the reasons for the differentiation of the research conclusions. It is clearly pointed out that there are three major problems in this field, such as narrow research surface, single research method and lack of timeliness of research conclusions. And based on the analysis results put forward further breakthrough and improvement direction.

The Impact of Agricultural Insurance on Urban-Rural Consumption Gap

Based on panel data from 30 provinces in China from 2005 to 2020, this paper analyzes the impact and mechanism of the level of agricultural insurance (AI) coverage on the urban-rural consumption gap (URCG). The study finds: (1) Long-term development of AI can promote the narrowing of URCG. (2) Regional heterogeneity tests reveal that the impact of AI on URCG is particularly significant in eastern regions but weak in central and western regions. (3) From the perspective of intermediary effects, accelerating urbanization (UR) is an important mechanism for AI to narrow URCG and enhance economic quality and efficiency. (4) Based on the threshold effect of fiscal support for agriculture on the level of AI and URCG, it is found that when fiscal support for agriculture is moderate, the development of AI is conducive to narrowing URCG. However, during periods of excessive fiscal support for agriculture, the role of AI in narrowing URCG is not significant. If fiscal support for agriculture continues to increase, the development of AI may even widen the consumption gap between urban and rural areas.

Urban-rural disparities in minimum acceptable diet intake among children aged 6-23 months in Ethiopia: A multivariable Decomposition analysis of Ethiopian demographic and health survey 2019.

The achievement of the minimum acceptable diet intake (MAD) stands at 14% among urban and 10% among rural under-five children in Ethiopia. Consequently, identifying the determinants of the urban-rural gap is vital for advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), fostering healthier communities, and developing evidence-driven approaches to enhance health outcomes and address disparities. The objective of the study was to decompose the urban-rural disparities in minimum acceptable diet intake in Ethiopia using the Ethiopian Mini-Demographic and Health Survey 2019 data. The study was conducted using the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey 2019 report. A total of 1,496 weighted children aged 6-23 months were included using stratified sampling techniques. The main outcome variable minimum acceptable diet was calculated as a combined proportion of minimum dietary diversity and minimum meal frequency. A decomposition analysis was used to analyze the factors associated with the urban-rural discrepancy of minimum acceptable diet intake, and the results were presented using tables and figures. The magnitude of minimum acceptable diet among children aged 6-23 months in Ethiopia was 11.0%. There has been a significant disparity in the intake of minimum acceptable diet between urban and rural under-five children with 14 and 10%, respectively. Endowment factors were responsible for 70.2% of the discrepancy, followed by 45.1% with behavioral coefficients. Educational status of college and above was responsible for narrowing the gap between urban and rural residents by 23.9% (β = 0.1313, 95% CI: 0.0332-0.245). The number of children in the household and the age of the child between 18 and 23 months were responsible for widening the gap in minimum acceptable diet intake discrepancy between urban and rural residents by 30.7% and 3.36%, respectively (β = -0.002, 95% CI: -0.003 to -0.0011 and β = -30.7, 95% CI: -0.025 - -0.0085). From the effect coefficients, the effect of institutional delivery was responsible for 1.99% of the widening of the gap between urban and rural residents in minimum acceptable diet intake (β = -0.0862, 95% CI: -0.1711 - -0.0012). There is a significant variation between urban and rural residents in minimum acceptable diet. The larger portion of the discrepancy was explained by the endowment effect. Educational status of mothers with college and above, parity, age of child, and place of delivery were the significant factors contributing to the discrepancy of minimum acceptable diet intake between urban and rural residents.

The Influence of Urban-Rural Integration on Rural Entrepreneurship and Employment is Analyzed Based on the Perspective of Flow Space

Against the backdrop of actively promoting the rural revitalization strategy and urban-rural integration, Guangdong Province has launched a forward-looking "Internet Plus" rural e-commerce entrepreneurship project, aiming to unleash the tremendous potential of the rural economy and further narrow the urban-rural development gap. This study, based on the theory of space of flows, has conducted a detailed analysis of the implementation strategy of the project and its role in promoting urban-rural integration. Through in-depth analysis, this paper found that the project has effectively broken through geographical restrictions by precisely utilizing internet technologies, greatly promoting information exchange and resource sharing between urban and rural areas. However, the project has also encountered challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, a relatively weak rural entrepreneurial atmosphere, and a lack of entrepreneurial awareness. Therefore, the government should further increase policy support, improve the infrastructure network, and strengthen rural entrepreneurship training to ensure the sustainable and healthy progress of the project, injecting new vitality into urban-rural integration.

DISPARITIES IN CHINA'S LABOUR MARKETS BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS

This paper focuses on examining the urban-rural gap in China's labour market, using CHFS data. The findings indicate that rural workers in China exhibit a high employment rate due to lower education levels, making it easier for them to secure basic jobs in society. However, they often face lower wages and lack housing and medical insurance, making it challenging for them to sustain themselves in urban areas. It is crucial to recognize that the economic well-being of workers is not solely determined by wage income but also by working conditions and stability. Disparities between urban and rural labour forces cannot be overlooked, as migratory workers also encounter distinct labour agreements and social welfare rights. Research suggests that individuals with lower education levels tend to fare better in rural areas, whereas those with higher education levels typically thrive in urban settings.

Heterogeneous effects of return migration on children's mental health and cognitive outcomes

As a neglected group, the number of return migrant children is growing with China's monumental volume of labor migration. Using data from 2013 to 2014 China Education Panel Survey, this study examines heterogeneous effects of return migration on children's mental health and cognitive outcomes. Our results show that the effects of return migration on children vary with the propensity for return migration. More importantly, when children are at risk of return migration, even if that risk is small, it already has a negative impact on children's mental health, which reminds us that it needs to take a dynamic view to study the impact of return migration on children. However, the impact of return migration is not all negative, and the findings suggest that return migration can promote the cognitive development of urban-origin migrant children. A striking regional difference emerges from our analysis: due to urban-rural gap, the impact of return migration on children from urban and rural areas is different. Specifically, return migration has a positive effect on the cognitive development of urban-origin migrant children while return migration does some harm to that of rural-origin migrant children, which implies that return migration may widen the gap between urban and rural children.

Can information infrastructure break the imbalance between urban and rural development? Empirical evidence from China

ABSTRACT In confronting the urgent challenges within the realm of international development, it has become imperative to explore novel pathways for economic growth, diminish the income disparity among diverse societal segments, and alleviate the discrepancies between urban and rural regions. However, previous research has yet to comprehensively investigate whether information infrastructure holds the potential to narrow the urban-rural development gap. Furthermore, the distinctive contributions of traditional infrastructure and information infrastructure to economic development have been insufficiently explored and compared. Drawing upon data from the China Household Panel Study (CFPS) spanning the period 2010–2018, this study extensively examines the role and advantages of information infrastructure in bridging the urban-rural development gap. By employing the fixed effect model and employing the ‘Broadband China’ strategy as a proxy variable for information infrastructure enhancement, the study reveals that the improvement of information infrastructure significantly amplifies the total income of Chinese households, with a pronounced impact in rural areas. The emergence of a ‘catch-up effect’ serves to diminish the income disparity between urban and rural areas. Moreover, when contrasted with contemporaneous investments in traditional infrastructure, which have reached a state of relative saturation in China, the positive effect of information infrastructure upgrading surpasses that of traditional infrastructure investment. Hence, upgrading information infrastructure effectively addresses the imbalances in urban and rural development and narrows the income gap. These findings carry considerable implications for government bodies in formulating development policies.

Disparities in trends in bladder cancer mortality between urban and rural patients: A 2000-2020 analysis.

4583 Background: Patients in rural areas in the US often have worse healthcare outcomes due to socioeconomic deprivation, higher rates of smoking, and limited access to medical care. Despite a general decline in bladder cancer mortality over the past two decades, comprehensive studies comparing these trends between urban and rural mortality are scarce. Methods: Utilizing the CDC WONDER database, we extracted mortality data for bladder cancer from 2000 to 2020. Age-adjusted mortality rates per 100,000 persons were standardized to the Year 2000 US standard population. Data segmentation by urbanity utilized the 2013 National Center for Health Statistics Urban-Rural Classification Scheme. The National Cancer Institute's Joinpoint Regression Program was employed to calculate average annual percent changes (AAPCs) and annual percent changes (APCs). Results: In our analysis, we identified a total of 306,750 bladder cancer death cases from 2000 to 2020. Significant improvements in bladder cancer mortality were observed in urban areas, with large central metros experiencing the most pronounced decrease (AAPC -1.0%, p<0.001). This decline was moderate between 2000 and 2016 (APC -0.3, p< 0.001) but accelerated between 2016 and 2020 (APC -3.8%, p<0.001). Large fringe and medium metros also saw comparatively smaller but significant declines (AAPC -0.6%, P<0.05) and also accelerated between 2016-2020. In contrast, small metro and rural areas (micropolitan and noncore) showed no significant improvement, with mortality rates remaining stable between 2000 and 2020 (AAPC 0.2%, P=0.099). Conclusions: This analysis, the largest to date comparing urban and rural mortality trends in bladder cancer, highlights significant disparities in outcomes between large urban and rural areas. The marked improvement in urban areas, especially noted around the time novel agents such as immunotherapy were introduced, underscores the potential impact of advanced treatments. However, the stable mortality rates in rural areas suggest that access to advanced care, environmental influences, socioeconomic status, and slower adaptation of new guidelines in rural settings may play critical roles. These findings underline the urgent need for strategies to close the urban-rural gap. [Table: see text]

Synchronous Development Strategy of China’s New Four Modernizations: Theoretical Connotation and Current Development Status

The Chinese government has proposed a synchronous development strategy for new urbanization, industrialization, informatization, and agricultural modernization (called “New Four Modernization,” NFM), which provides a crucial choice for solving China's current social contradictions, such as the irrational industrial structure, large urban-rural gap and environmental pollution. Firstly, this study focuses on elucidating the conceptual connotations of China's NFM. Secondly, this study systematically analyzes the theoretical foundation of China's NFM synchronous development strategy for the first time, providing a theoretical evidence for China's NFM synchronous development strategy. Lastly, this study analyzed the current development status of China's NFM, finding that China's new urbanization, industrialization, informatization, and agricultural modernization are developing steadily and synchronously. Therefore, this study contributes to a correct understanding of the theoretical connotation and current development status of China's NFM synchronous development strategy.

Early Family Formation, Selective Migration, and Childhood Conditions in Rural America☆

AbstractThirty years ago, rural Americans got married and had children at significantly younger ages than urban Americans. More recent data indicate that these differences persist today, but our understanding of what drives these differences remains limited. To address this gap, we (1) generate Kaplan–Meier estimates of the ages of the first marriage, first union, and first birth among those who lived in rural and urban areas in 2019, (2) evaluate the extent to which rural–urban differences in the timing of family formation reflect selective migration, (3) assess whether rural–urban differences in childhood SES and demographic characteristics further explain differences in timing, and (4) explore rural–urban differences by gender. We find substantial 4.3, 3.8, and 5.1‐year gaps in the ages at which rural and urban women marry, start unions, and become parents, respectively. These gaps largely do not reflect selective migration. Differences in women's age of first birth are attributable to differences in childhood conditions, yet differences in marital and union timing remain unexplained. Rural–urban gaps in the timing of family formation are much larger among women than among men. These patterns of early family formation in rural America have critical implications for families' and children's well‐being as well as rural depopulation.

Cancer literacy differences of basic knowledge, prevention, early detection, treatment and recovery: a cross-sectional study of urban and rural residents in Northeast China.

Cancer literacy as a potential health intervention tool directly impacted the success of cancer prevention and treatment initiatives. This study aimed to evaluate the cancer literacy in Northeast China, and explore the factors contributing to urban-rural disparities. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 14 cities across Liaoning Province, China, from August to October 2021, using the multistage probability proportional to size sampling (PPS) method. The survey comprised 4,325 participants aged 15-69 and encompassed 37 core knowledge-based questions spanning five dimensions. Associations between sociodemographic factors and the cancer literacy rate were evaluated using chi-square tests and multivariate logistic regression model. The overall cancer literacy rate was 66.9% (95% CI: 65.6-68.2%). In the primary indicators, cancer literacy were highest in treatment (75.8, 95% CI: 74.2-77.4%) and early detection (68.2, 95% CI: 66.8-69.6%), followed by basic knowledge (67.2, 95% CI: 65.8-68.6%), recovery (62.6, 95% CI: 60.7-64.5%) and prevention (59.7, 95% CI: 58.2-61.3%). Regarding secondary indicators, the awareness rates regarding cancer-related risk factors (54.7, 95% CI: 52.8-56.5%) and early diagnosis of cancer (54.6, 95% CI: 52.7-56.6%) were notably inadequate. Rural participates exhibited lower cancer literacy across all dimensions compared to urban. Multi-factor analysis showed that factors such as advanced age, limited education or low household income were barriers to health literacy in rural areas. Strengthening awareness concerning prevention and early detection, particularly among key populations, and bridging the urban-rural cancer literacy gap are imperative steps toward achieving the Healthy China 2030 target.

Impact of public environmental concern on urban-rural economic income inequality

Reducing urban-rural income disparities is crucial for economic growth and sustainable development. Does combating environmental pollution contribute to reducing income inequality? Drawing on data gathered from 199 prefecture-level cities spanning 2011 to 2019, this study examines the impact of public environmental concern on urban-rural income gaps using a two-way fixed effects model and dynamic panel model. The study reveals that heightened public environmental awareness can impede the growth of farmers' income, exacerbating urban-rural income disparities with a delayed effect. This influence is more pronounced in densely populated areas, economically advanced regions, mid-regions, and low-pollution zones. Further investigations demonstrate that public environmental awareness can widen the economic divide between urban and rural areas by influencing environmental governance capabilities and deteriorating the employment landscape. These findings offer valuable insights for regions aiming to concurrently achieve shared prosperity and reduce carbon emissions.

Two worlds apart: a qualitative study of culture-led rural regeneration projects in China

ABSTRACT The urban–rural gap remains to be one fundamental inequality in modern China; however, the symbolic boundary derived from such socioeconomic inequality is less examined. Centre on two parallel initiatives aimed at cultural empowerment for rural China—independent bookstores and public-subsidized libraries—this study tries to explicate the multidimensional nature of boundaries and emphasize the cultural mechanism of boundary reproduction under institutional layering environment. We draw from policy trajectories, media discourse, and first-hand interviews in two villages, and reveal that despite the idealized portrayal of bookstores as a public cultural centre for empowerment, the symbolic construction wielded by cultural entrepreneurs is not sufficient in dissolving social differences in a digitalized society. Local villagers are not part of the “cultural consumption as identity building” ritual therefore being excluded from an urban-and-consumption culture-oriented space. Moreover, local villagers adopt differentiated interpretive strategies towards culture-led regeneration projects, so that “rural culture” is merely the swirl of an empty signal in Baudrillard’s sense that does not bear the symbolic efficacy promoted by top-down initiatives.

A comparative study of factors influencing residents' waste sorting behavior in urban and rural areas of China

Extensive research has been conducted on the waste sorting behavior (WSB) of residents, while it is the first time that the classification behavior of urban and rural residents is compared under the same theoretical framework in China. Based on questionnaire data from 478 urban and rural residents, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to investigate the internal factors influencing the WSB by integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Norm Activation Model (NAM). Hierarchical regression analysis was utilized to investigate the moderating effect of external factors on the residents' intentions and behavior. The results show that the degree of deviation between rural residents' intentions and behavior is much larger than that of urban residents. Personal norms are the key factors affecting urban residents' waste sorting. In contrast, for rural residents, attitude is the most critical factor, but the influence of subjective norms is insignificant. In addition, we found that policy restraints and economic incentives significantly moderate the association between urban residents' sorting intention and behavior, with economic incentives having a better effect than policy restraints. In contrast, the impact of policy restraints on rural residents is better than that of urban areas. However, the moderating effect of economic incentives is insignificant for rural residents. The findings furnish the government with meaningful strategies to narrow the urban-rural waste management gap.

Overcoming Geographic Barriers: Surgical Care in Rural Populations

AbstractThis chapter examines the challenges rural Americans face in accessing surgical care, which is characterized by geographical barriers, a decreasing surgical workforce, and unique patient factors. The widening health care disparity between rural and urban residents highlights the need for comprehensive strategies to improve surgical care delivery to rural areas. Focusing on colorectal care delivery, encompassing the spectrum of common and complex care, exemplifies opportunities to optimize care delivery for rural populations. Here, we discuss the complex and unique interplay of challenges within rural hospital infrastructure, workforce shortages, and patient factors emphasizing financial strain, closure of rural hospitals, and limited access to specialty providers and resources. Current evidence focuses on volume–outcome relationships, the safety of common surgical care at rural hospitals, and the impact of rural hospitals joining larger health systems. Strategies to optimize care delivery include site-of-care optimization, improved care coordination, dissemination of specialty expertise, and policy programs to support the rural workforce. Recent federal policies, including the rural emergency hospital program, underscore the delicate balance between sustaining essential local health care services and the financial realities of rural health care delivery. We then conclude with evidence-based strategies to bridge the urban-rural health care gap, ensuring equitable access to high-quality surgical care regardless of geographic location.

Rural–urban inequalities in health care utilization in Bhutan: a decomposition analysis

Background and objectiveOn the trajectory towards universal health coverage in Bhutan, health equity requires policy attention as significant disparities exist between urban and rural health outcomes. This paper examines health services utilization patterns, inequalities and their socio-economic determinants in rural and urban areas and decomposes the factors behind these differences.MethodsWe used the Bhutan Living Standard Survey 2017 to profile health services utilization patterns and equalities. We employed two different decomposition analyses: decomposition of mean differences in utilization using the Oaxaca–Blinder decomposition framework and differences in the income-related distribution in utilization using recentered influence function regressions between rural and urban areas.ResultsSignificant differences exist in the type of outpatient services used by the rural and urban population groups, with those living in rural areas having 3.4 times higher odds of using primary health centers compared to outpatient hospital care. We find that the use of primary health care is pro-poor and that outpatient hospital resources is concentrated among the more affluent section of the population, with this observed inequality consistent across settings but more severe in rural areas. The rural–urban gap in utilization is primarily driven by income and residence in the eastern region, while income-related inequality in utilization is influenced, aside from income, by residence in the central region, household size, and marriage and employment status of the household head. We do not find evidence of significant mean differences in overall utilization or inequality in utilization of inpatient health care services.ConclusionsWhile the differences in average contacts with health services are insignificant, there are prominent differences in the level of services availed and the associated inequality among rural and urban settings in Bhutan. Besides, while there are obvious overlaps, factors influencing income-related inequality are not necessarily the same as those driving the utilization gaps. Cognizance of these differences may lead to better informed, targeted, and potentially more effective future research and policies for universal health coverage.