Rural School Districts Research Articles

A-146 Parent Responses on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 Are more Reflective of Child Cognitive Functioning than Teacher Responses

Abstract Objective The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition (BRIEF-2) is widely used to assess executive processes in children and adolescents. The BRIEF-2 manual (2015) indicates small correlations between executive functioning and intellectual performance on the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Fourth Edition, but no studies have evaluated the BRIEF-2 and the Woodcock Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, Fourth Edition (WJ-IV-Cog). The current study examined whether parent and teacher BRIEF-2 responses were linked to WJ-IV-Cog indices in a rural school-based sample. Method A sample of (n = 18) students attending rural school districts was extracted from an archival dataset. Participants (age range 7–17, M = 12.9, SD = 2.5) included 15 males and 3 females, who were referred for psychoeducational assessment. Results Correlational analyses indicated a moderate relationship between the BRIEF-2 parent Global Executive Composite (GEC) and the WJ-IV-Cog domains of comprehension-knowledge (Gc), fluid reasoning (Gf), and auditory processing (Ga) (p < 0.05). Subsequent analyses of the three BRIEF-2 indices showed that the Parent Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI) was related to both Gc and Gf (p < 0.05), while the Parent Cognitive Regulation Index (CRI) was significantly associated with Gc, Gf, and Ga (p < 0.05). Teacher ratings of GEC, BRI, and CRI were independent from child intellectual performance. However, Teacher Emotion Regulation Index (ERI) was moderately related with GIA (p < 0.05). Conclusion Current findings support a moderate relationship between parent ratings on the BRIEF-2 and specific cognitive domains on the WJ-IV-Cog. Results should be interpreted within the context of both a small sample size and the designation of subjects for psycho-educational assessment evaluations.

Ethnoracial Diversity and Segregation in U.S. Rural School Districts*

AbstractThe ethnoracial diversification of rural America is gaining more attention in scholarly and policy circles, but its impact on rural school districts is often overlooked. We use federal data sources to explore the magnitude and structure of rural ethnoracial diversity and to analyze variation in how U.S. rural school district demographics have changed nationally from 2000 to 2019. Employing a majority rule typology, we classify more than 5,000 school districts according to their ethnoracial structure. Our findings illustrate that rising Hispanic enrollment is a central element of changing rural public school student demographics nationwide. Since 2000, rural school districts have become more ethnoracially diverse, and rural students of most ethnicities/races have become less ethnoracially isolated. However, despite demographic changes resulting in more diversified district enrollments overall, segregation within rural districts persists. Furthermore, White enrollment in rural district types with the fewest White students declined twice as much as in the rural district types with the highest share of White students. Together, these patterns suggest how school segregation and opportunity hoarding can persist despite growth in districts’ ethnoracial diversity.

Exploring Secondary Teachers’ Willingness to Differentiate Instruction for ELLs

The growing English language learner (ELL) population is expanding in the United States from concentrated, urban areas to smaller, rural school districts in which mainstream content teachers provide most instruction for these students (DelliCarpini & Alonso, 2014). Most mainstream content teachers at the secondary level, however, have had little or no training in teaching ELLs and do not currently provide the differentiated instruction necessary for ELLs to be successful (Musanti & Pence, 2010; Rubinstein-Avila & Lee, 2014). Previous research has explored teacher attitudes toward ELLs in mainstream classes and the teacher beliefs related to teacher identity, teacher responsibility, and self-efficacy which all emerge as relevant to teaching ELLs. However, there is no prior research on the association these three factors potentially have with teachers’ willingness to differentiate their instruction for ELLs in mainstream classrooms.
 This study explored these three factors of identity, responsibility, and self-efficacy as well as EL training, their relationship to each other, and their potential correlation with a teacher’s willingness to differentiate (WTD) instruction for ELLs in a mainstream classroom. Results indicate that identity and responsibility correlate most with a willingness to differentiate, but self-efficacy, along with several other emergent factors, are also relevant.

Professional Development for Secondary School Teachers and Educational Professionals in STEM Fields

Rural communities are geographically isolated and have limited access to specialized services and ongoing support from content educational experts. As a result, rural school districts across the nation face many challenges related to the recruitment, retention, and professional development for their teachers. Studies have reported that rural school districts experience a shortage of specialized teachers and it is likely that rural school teachers will teach in content areas outside of their area of expertise. Finding mathematics and science teachers is a constant challenge. In response, we developed the Professional Development for Secondary School Teachers and Educational Professionals (PD-STEP) into STEM Fields Model, which utilizes research-based lessons aligned with curriculum standards and purposefully centered on (a) agricultural mathematics, science, and technology knowledge and skills; (b) specific needs of English language learners; and (c) indigenous, authentic agricultural topics through field-based experiences for teachers. The PD-STEP into STEM Fields Model encompasses the development of a lesson plan template and lesson topics that incorporate teachers’ professional development training on food, agriculture, natural resources, and human sciences. These professional development activities explore opportunities available in the career paths described by the United States Department of Agriculture and engender resource-rich partnerships among university faculty and rural school teachers.

Implementation of school-based services for students with autism: Barriers and facilitators across urban and rural districts and phases of implementation.

The law requires that schools use evidence-based practices to educate students with autism spectrum disorder. However, these practices are often not used, or are not used correctly in school programs. Understanding barriers and facilitators of use of evidence-based practices in schools will help improve the implementation process. This study uses focus groups to characterize how school-based providers representing urban or rural school districts perceive barriers and facilitators for implementing new practices for students with autism spectrum disorder. Guiding questions include the following: (1) Are contextual factors perceived as barriers or facilitators and how do these vary by district location? and (2) What are the key factors impacting implementation across the Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, and Sustainment phases? Focus group participants (n = 33) were service providers to children with autism spectrum disorder from urban- and rural-located school districts. Several personnel-related themes (attitudes and buy-in, knowledge and skills, staffing, and burnout) were shared by participants representing both urban and rural districts. However, some personnel-related themes and organizational factors were unique to rural or urban districts. For example, themes related to system and organizational factors (leadership approval, support and expectations, district structure, competing priorities, time for effective professional development, litigation and due process, and materials and resources) differed between the district locations. This project serves as an initial step in identifying implementation strategies that may improve the use of evidence-based practices in schools.

Benefits of Mindfulness Professional Development for Elementary Teachers

Using an embedded quasi-experimental mixed-method approach, this exploratory study aimed to understand the benefits of mindfulness training for elementary school teachers and leaders in one rural school district. After the delivery of two 90-minute mindfulness professional developments with on-the-job practice of strategies over 2 weeks, quantitative statistical comparisons of the intervention and inactive control groups were made using survey results from the Mindfulness in Teaching Scale (Frank et al., 2016). Qualitative analyses used intervention participant journal entry responses along with one-on-one interviews. After analyses, the results suggest mindfulness training can benefit teachers, specifically in the use of intrapersonal mindfulness practices, reshaping daily interactions with students, and reducing stress.

Data use processes in rural schools: management structures undermining leadership opportunities and instructional change

ABSTRACT Data use has become a priority in educational systems throughout the world under the belief that rational instructional decisions can be tailored to individual learner needs. Despite increasing expectations for school principals to be instructional leaders, there is little evidence that they – or other system or school leaders – are responsible for anything more than ensuring structures are in place for teachers to work with data. In this study, we analyze interview and observational data collected over the period of 1 academic year in four elementary schools in one rural school district in the United States. We consider results through a conceptual framing of collective leadership to understand how leaders across district, school, and classroom levels do or do not support data use in the school system. Among our findings, data use is espoused and portrayed but generally unsupported. Data team meetings and structures are embedded in school cultures, but they are mostly managed and routine, prioritizing expediency and process over instructional adaptation or response. As a result, we conclude that the establishment of data team meetings and related structures is critical but insufficient to improve instruction and increase student learning.

Exploring Enabler Actions Influencing Basotho Teachers’ Wellbeing to Cope with Schools’ Adversities at a Rural School

Teachers at South African schools work under unfavourable conditions that manifest as burnout, fatigue, exhaustion and stress, violence, lack of infrastructures, lack of resources, poor working relationships, inflexible curriculum, etc. Despite these conditions, they still managed to do their jobs to uplift their community. Against this background, this study explored enabler actions that influence Basotho teachers to surmount schools’ adversities at a rural school district. It adopted a qualitative multiple case study as a research design and semi-structured interviews as data collection instrument. Four participants (n=4; females, aged 25-35 years) were selected through purposive and convenience sampling techniques. All participants worked at a South African rural school in Free State province, South Africa. They are Basotho speakers and have at least three years of teaching experience. The thematic findings revealed that Basotho teachers developed enabler actions to cope with schools’ adversities and adjust to social and cultural environments. These include the availability of supportive services, awareness of inadequate assets, awareness of teachers’ strengths, developing of teacher resilience, self-efficacy, problem-solving skills, managing self-emotions, and self-confidence. This study concluded that the identified enabler initiatives contributed and stabilized the Basotho teacher wellbeing effectively regardless of challenges at a rural school.
 
 Received: 25 August 2020 / Accepted: 23 November 2020 / Published: 10 May 2021

“Much more chewing”: a case study of resistance to school reform in rural New York during the early twentieth century

ABSTRACT Between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as the United States was transformed from an agrarian nation to an industrial one, significant changes in the nation’s economic, social, and political structures, and the challenges that ensued, led to a multitude of diverse reform movements and a surge of regulatory measures from the federal and state governments. State governments played a particularly significant role in education reform by establishing new standards and regulations and taking steps to implement them in the nation’s schools. State education officials often met with resistance to reform from the residents of small rural school districts, who had enjoyed a long history of local control and resented the state’s interference. Conflict became more complicated when the residents within a rural community differed among themselves about school reform. This historical study investigates and analyses two documented disputes between the New York State Education Department and two common school districts in the Town of Conklin, Broome County, which occurred during the early 1900s. The physical condition of the schoolhouses led to both conflicts, and rural school consolidation and community infighting were additional factors that marked the second dispute. Both cases highlight the forces of local democratic governance and the central authority of the state over local schools and its role in the process of school reform. The Conklin cases are discussed and analysed within the larger contexts of localism, state-local tensions during the Progressive Era, rural school consolidation, and the reform initiatives of the New York State Education Department during this historical period.

Spending Floors in Gifted Education Services

For nearly two decades, the state of Texas mandated gifted education services and provided funding to public school districts. One policy that was unique to the state is the mandatory minimum spending. This research examines how these mandatory minimum spending floors influence spending in public school districts within the state and how that influence varies across locales. Our findings provide evidence that rural public school districts in Texas were more likely to operate near to the mandatory state minimum spending for gifted education than non-rural public school districts. In particular, rural public school districts allocated 50% of the funds towards gifted education programming as suburban public school districts when the minimum spending floors was accounted for. The results should provide caution to policy makers on the possible ramifications of removing spending floors on gifted education programming in rural public school districts.

Coaching, professional community, and continuous improvement: rural school leader and coach development in a research-practice partnership

ABSTRACT The increased need for effective school leadership development, especially in rural and high-needs schools, has led to an increase in research-practice partnerships between districts and universities. Yet, there is a need for systematic analysis of the outcomes of such partnerships. The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of a leadership development initiative on 16 school leaders and eight leadership coaches and their leadership and leadership coaching practices. The initiative, the Leadership Learning Community (LLC), was created through a research-practice partnership between a consortium of 12 predominantly rural, high-poverty school districts and two universities to meet the districts’ leadership development needs. The results of the study demonstrate the benefits of rural school districts partnering with other districts and universities to provide cross-district leadership development through facilitated professional communities and job-embedded coaching to develop rural school leaders and coaches able to lead continuous school improvement efforts.

School psychologists as agents of change: Implementing MTSS in a rural school district

AbstractThis case study focuses on the role of school psychologists during the transition to and implementation of multi‐tiered systems of support (MTSS) in a small, rural school district. It provides guidance to other school psychologists in similar rural districts on how to support a system‐level change from the individual building level to the entire district level. The case study highlights the ways that the school psychologists' roles have changed due to the MTSS process as well as challenges that the district overcame. Further, it showcases that school psychologists can be valuable team members and can successfully advocate for change. It concludes with a summary of specific core components that have been essential in effectively implementing the frameworks at the school district level. Last, recommendations are provided to other practitioners regarding anticipated changes to MTSS given the extended school closure occurring due to the global pandemic.

Professional Development for Rural Stem Teachers on Data Science and Cybersecurity: A University and School District Partnership

The professional development (PD) was a six-week long summer-intensive NSF- funded project that took place at a large university in western Texas. It was designed to provide a research-rich learning environment in data science and cybersecurity for STEM teachers in the region, which is mainly rural. Because of geographical isolation, rural teachers lack the resources to prepare their 6th -12th grade students for STEM careers and often find it difficult to bring innovative science teaching into their schools. The team was comprised of nine teachers, five professors, and six graduate students. In analyzing teacher reflections, we found the teachers gradually developing a scientist persona. They acquired sophisticated pedagogical knowledge to integrate complex concepts into their 6th-12th STEM curriculum without sacrificing the state standards, while creating a community of learners. This led to reduced feelings of isolation often experienced by rural teachers. It is clear that partnerships between universities and rural school districts can transform the way STEM disciplines are delivered, creating a strong pipeline for rural students in the STEM workforce.

A multi-level analysis of upper elementary students’ performance on the STAAR reading exam: comparing growth trajectories of rural and non-rural school districts

ABSTRACT We examined student reading achievement in rural and non-rural school districts in Texas. Our research questions probed the improvement in student performance over time, differences in the number of students achieving at different performance levels, and the impact of district-level characteristics on reading achievement. Through quantitative analyses of district-level aggregated data, we compared student growth trajectories over three years. We employed growth hierarchical linear modelling to explore to what extent time, school location, and their interaction impacted student outcomes, as measured by the state reading test. We found that both rural and non-rural students improved in all three performance levels. Location differences were only found in the higher performance levels. We further added 11 district-level factors that might influence student reading performance into the model. The percentages of at-risk and economically disadvantaged students, student mobility rate, and teacher turnover rate had a statistically significant negative impact for all reading levels.

INTERPRETATIVE PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF TEENAGE MOTHERS RESILIENCY IN OVERCOMING ADVERSITIES IN PREGNANCY AND EARLY MOTHERHOOD IN SOUTH AFRICA

The phenomenon of teenage motherhood is a major concern worldwide. The teenage mothers endure many challenges that could affect their academic goals and successes if there is insufficient support. However, some teenage mothers manage to develop certain forms of flexibility to manage these adversities. This study explored the teenage mothers' resiliency in overcoming adversities in pregnancy and early motherhood at a rural high school in South Africa. Within the Interpretative Phenomenological qualitative paradigm, an exploratory case study research design was adopted. 10 participants (N=10) were selected from a rural high school district using a purposive sampling technique. The study employed semi-structured interviews to collect data. The findings demonstrated that teenage mothers were resilient to continuing and completing their schooling by adopting self-motivation and school and family support. This study suggested that the South African Department of Education should develop a training programme for teenage mothers on psychosocial adjustment mechanisms to help them cope with their situations. Keywords: interpretative phenomenological analysis, rural high school, teenage motherhood, teenage mother resiliency, teenage pregnancy

Critical consciousness among rural adolescents: the roles of school connection and positive relationships with teachers

Critical consciousness (CC) has been linked to academic and civic engagement for students from marginalized backgrounds, but little work has examined CC for students from more privileged groups. In addition, research indicates that school characteristics may promote the development of CC, but this literature has yet to be fully developed. Specifically, research on school climate has focused primarily on structural and instructional aspects (e.g., democratic school culture, classroom discussions of current events) but has not examined more emotional and relational aspects, such as feelings of connection to teachers and school community. Thus, the current study expands the literature by examining relations between the agency and action components of critical consciousness and two indicators of school climate (school connection and positive relationships with teachers), using a predominantly White sample of middle and high school students (ages 13–18) from a rural school district. Results indicated that both school connection and positive relationships with teachers were positively related to critical agency. School climate variables were generally unrelated to critical action, with the exception of a negative relation between positive relationships with teachers and critical action for middle school students.

Perceived Stress and Nonverbal Intellectual Abilities Are Differentially Related to Academic Success in Latinx and European American Rural Elementary Students

This study examines the relationship between perceived stress, nonverbal cognitive functioning, and statewide academic scores in both Latinx and European American elementary students in rural school districts. A total of 44 third graders participated in the study, including 13 Latinx students and 31 European American (EA) students. Perceived stress was self-reported by the Perceived Stress Scale for Children (PSS-C). A nonverbal measure of cognitive ability (The Wechsler Nonverbal Scale of Intelligence) was administered individually to each student, and statewide academic testing results were obtained for all participants. Latinx and EA children self-reported comparable rates of perceived stress. Both groups obtained similar nonverbal cognitive composite scores, but with distinct subtest differences. Both groups scored similarly on statewide standardized testing for math, although the EA group scored higher than the Latinx group on English. Binomial tests of differences between correlations revealed that relationships among perceived stress, nonverbal intelligence, and academic achievement differed significantly for the Latinx and EA students. Academic achievement for Latinx students is correlated with lower perceived stress and higher nonverbal cognitive ability, including overall ability and the matrices, coding, and spatial span subtests. For European American children, academic success is correlated with higher nonverbal scores on the matrices and picture arrangement subtests but is not related to perceived stress. Thus, ethnicity may differentially impact the relationship between perceived stress, nonverbal IQ, and academic achievement in rural elementary students, based in part on culturally relevant contextual factors.

Innovating a Promising Practice in High Poverty Rural School Districts

This article gives meaning to innovating promising practices in high poverty rural contexts, as experienced by the Rural Math Excel Partnership (RMEP). The project sought to develop a model of shared school-family-community responsibility to support student success in foundational math courses as preparation for science, technology, engineering, mathematics and health (STEM-H) careers. RMEP was one of the two rural development grant awards in the 2012 federal fiscal year, the first year for awards in the rural priority area of the U. S. Department of Education’s Investing in Innovation (i3) program. High poverty rural areas may have major implications for fidelity of implementation and measurement of intended impacts that raise important questions about project organizational structures, capacities and evaluation needs. If significant external funding and a partnership approach are key catalysts for innovating solutions to educational challenges, the answers to 10 questions of readiness could have major implications for project success.

The Fiscal Effects of Tax Increment Financing on Rural School Districts: The Case of Iowa

Tax increment financing (TIF)—an economic (re)development tool originally designed for urban cities—has been available to rural communities for decades. This is the first study to focus solely on TIF in rural school districts, to examine TIF effects on school districts’ property tax base and rates, and to conduct event-study estimations of TIF effects. The study finds that TIF has mostly positive effects on rural school districts’ property tax base and mixed effects on property tax rates, and that TIF-induced increases in tax base come primarily from residential property and slightly from commercial property. The study’s findings assert the importance of returned excess increment if rural school districts in Iowa and many other states are to benefit from TIF.

Social self-efficacy and sexual communication among adolescents in the United States: a cross-sectional study.

Data were collected in a cross-sectional survey from 222 high school girls in a rural school district in the south-eastern United States (Mage = 15.2; 38% White, 29% Latina, 24% Black; 50% were in a dating relationship in the past 3 months). Variables were measured with Likert-type scales. Bivariate correlation and regression analyses were conducted. Social self-efficacy was significantly positively associated with sexual assertiveness and sexual communication self-efficacy for all girls, and there was a positive trend in the relationship between social self-efficacy and communication frequency among the subsample of girls who had a dating partner. The significant relationship with sexual assertiveness (β = 0.22, s.e. = 0.07, P = 0.001) and sexual communication self-efficacy (β = 0.17, s.e. = 0.04, P = 0.013) remained when controlling for sexual activity status. Strengthening social self-efficacy may enhance girls' sexual communication and assertiveness skills. Future studies are needed to confirm the causal and temporal nature of these associations.