Rural Residential Development Research Articles

Livestock depredation by wolves and the ranching economy in the Northwestern U.S.

Due primarily to wolf predation on livestock (depredation), some groups oppose wolf ( Canis lupus) conservation in the Northwestern U.S., which is an objective for large sectors of the public. Livestock depredation by wolves is a cost of wolf conservation borne by livestock producers, which creates conflict between producers, wolves and organizations involved in wolf conservation and management. Compensation is the main tool used to mitigate the costs of depredation, but this tool may be limited at improving tolerance for wolves. Furthermore, livestock production may in fact provide indirectly an important benefit for wolf conservation – i.e. a positive externality, by maintaining relatively intact habitat on private lands. We analyzed some of the costs of livestock depredation by wolves to livestock producers relative to recent economic trends in the livestock production industry, specifically income generated from livestock production and trends in land and livestock value. Data were gathered from depredation investigations, from the livestock compensation program and on land and livestock price in Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, U.S.A. from 1987 to 2003 – a period during which wolves had endangered species status. We found that instigation of attacks on livestock by wolves was determined by need for food, but wolves may kill sheep in excess of food needs. Excessive killing of livestock may contribute significantly to intolerance for wolves. Livestock killed by wolves cost producers approximately $11,076.49 per year between 1987 and 2003, although costs were increasing linearly ( R 2 = 0.789, P < 0.001). Each year such costs accounted for < 0.01% of the annual gross income from livestock operations in the region. Thus, wolf depredation is a small economic cost to the industry, although it may be a significant cost to affected producers as these costs are not equitably distributed across the industry. Compensation for depredation was efficient when compared to other regions. Land prices increased steadily throughout the study period ( R 2 = 0.966, P < 0.001), while the price of cattle decreased ( R 2 = 0.749, P < 0.001). We maintain that conservation groups should consider the potential consequences of all of these economic trends. Specifically, declining cattle price and the steady increase in land price might induce conversion of agricultural land to rural-residential developments, which could negatively impact wolf conservation via large scale habitat change and increased human presence.

Impacts of conservation easements for threat abatement and fire management in a rural oak woodland landscape

Rural residential development can impact habitat and complicate fire management. Conservation easements are created to prevent development but are rarely assessed for their influence on development patterns. In the Lassen Foothills, California, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) holds over 37,000 ha of mostly public-funded conservation easements on ranchland dominated by blue oak ( Quercus douglasii) woodland. For this region we modeled land use through 2050 under two scenarios, with and without conservation easements, using a rule-based growth model. We mapped development footprints on 760 rural residential parcels through automated remote sensing. From calculated footprint sizes we projected site-level habitat loss for each scenario. We also projected the influence of development patterns on fire management. With easements present the Lassen Foothills would gain about 184 new homes, compared with 223 homes if easements were absent. With an average residential footprint size of 0.34 ± 0.25 ha (mean ± SD), we found that easements slightly reduce vegetation conversion, protecting an additional 16.8 ha than were protected by the general plan alone. Without easements, scattered development may alter fire management on 12,370 ha (17.5% of undeveloped wildfire containment areas) by requiring more fire suppression and reducing options for prescribed burning. Low development pressure and county land use policies maintain very low residential densities in the Lassen Foothills. The easement program may increase options for fire management by preserving large landscapes. This case illustrates the limited effectiveness of land acquisition in preventing development in a low-threat landscape, and demonstrates the utility of growth models for prioritizing conservation investments.

Connectivity of core habitat in the Northeastern United States: Parks and protected areas in a landscape context

The exurbanization process, particularly rural residential development, is reducing the amount of roadless areas and remote habitat across the nation, with implications for biodiversity and ecosystem integrity of parks and protected areas. The need for connecting protected areas via existing habitat centers, or relatively undisturbed core areas, is greater than ever as exurbanization expands. Our objective was to make use of nationally available data sets on roads as well as information derived from satellite imagery, including impervious cover of the built environment and forest canopy density, to identify core habitat of the northeastern and mid-Atlantic USA. The identified core habitat areas, which covered 73,730 km 2 across 1177 discrete units, were stratified in terms of land ownership and management, and then analyzed in a landscape context using connectivity metrics derived from graph theory. The connectivity analysis made use of a suitability surface, derived from the land cover information, which approximated the costs incurred by hypothetical animals traversing the landscape. We show that protected areas are frequently identified as core habitat but are typically isolated, albeit sometimes buffered by adjacent multi-use lands (such as state or national forests). Over one third of the core habitat we identified has no protection, and another 42% is subject to motorized recreation or timber extraction. We provide maps showing the relative importance of core habitat areas for potentially connecting existing protected areas, and also provide an example of the vulnerability of connectivity to projected future residential development around one greater park ecosystem.

Using Widely Available Geospatial Data Sets to Assess the Influence of Roads and Buffers on Habitat Core Areas and Connectivity

Abstract Land development pressures that threaten habitat core areas and connectivity are intensifying across the nation and extending beyond urbanized areas in the form of rural residential development. This is particularly true in the temperate forests of the northeastern United States. We used a suite of nationally available data sets derived from satellite imagery to identify core habitat areas of the northeastern United States, including impervious cover (urbanized and developed areas) and forest cover (canopy density). These were augmented with road network extent and density. We analyzed the influence of different types of unimproved roads and amount of forest cover on identification of the extent and configuration of roadless areas, and then assessed these core habitat areas in terms of land ownership (public, private) and management (parks, refuges, multi-use). We also derived patch connectivity metrics using a graph theory approach, making use of cost surfaces that accounted for the above variab...

FORECASTING RELATIVE IMPACTS OF LAND USE ON ANADROMOUS FISH HABITAT TO GUIDE CONSERVATION PLANNING

Land use change can adversely affect water quality and freshwater ecosystems, yet our ability to predict how systems will respond to different land uses, particularly rural-residential development, is limited by data availability and our understanding of biophysical thresholds. In this study, we use spatially explicit parcel-level data to examine the influence of land use (including urban, rural-residential, and vineyard) on salmon spawning substrate quality in tributaries of the Russian River in California. We develop a land use change model to forecast the probability of losses in high-quality spawning habitat and recommend priority areas for incentive-based land conservation efforts. Ordinal logistic regression results indicate that all three land use types were negatively associated with spawning substrate quality, with urban development having the largest marginal impact. For two reasons, however, forecasted rural-residential and vineyard development have much larger influences on decreasing spawning substrate quality relative to urban development. First, the land use change model estimates 10 times greater land use conversion to both rural-residential and vineyard compared to urban. Second, forecasted urban development is concentrated in the most developed watersheds, which already have poor spawning substrate quality, such that the marginal response to future urban development is less significant. To meet the goals of protecting salmonid spawning habitat and optimizing investments in salmon recovery, we suggest investing in watersheds where future rural-residential development and vineyards threaten high-quality fish habitat, rather than the most developed watersheds, where land values are higher.

Oregon Clips Measure 37's Wings

Abstract On November 6, Oregon voters approved their state's Measure 49 by 62 to 38 percent, curtailing the much-reviled Measure 37 and bolstering restrictions on rural residential development in the state.

The Spatio-Temporal Dynamic Pattern of Rural Residential Land in China in the 1990s Using Landsat TM Images and GIS

Through interpreting Landsat TM images, this study analyzes the spatial distribution of rural settlements in China in 2000. It calculates rural residential land percentage for every 1-km(2) cell. The entire country is divided into 33 regions to investigate the spatio-temporal dynamic patterns of rural residential land during the 1990s. According to the remote sensing survey, the rural residential land increased by 7.88 x 10(5) ha in the 1990s. The increment of rural residential land was 0.55 million ha in 1990-1995 and 0.23 million ha in 1995-2000. In 1990-1995, rural residential land increased dramatically in the eastern regions such as the Yangtze River Delta, Pearl River Delta, and North China Plain, accounting for 80.80% of the national growth; the expansion in the western regions was much more moderate. In 1995-2000, the expansion of rural residential land in eastern regions slowed, accounting for only 58.54% of the increase at the national level, whereas the expansion in the western regions accelerated. Rapid rural residential development resulted from increasing home construction and the limited control on rural land. The great regional disparity reflected the regional economic development and land-use policy change. Our finding shows that nearly 60% of the rural residential area came from cropland.

The Importance of Sewer Extension Costs for Determining the Value of Future Development on Agricultural Lands

M any previous studies have explained agricultural land prices in terms of two components-the net present value (NPV) of agricultural use and the added value from future urban development. For example, Hardie, Narayan, and Gardner estimate farmland values as a function of both farm returns (to represent the NPV in agriculture) and developed land values, household income, population density, and location (to represent the influence of future urban development). Capozza and Helsley (1989) developed the theoretical model used in this study and many others. This dynamic model has two land uses-agriculture and urban-and demonstrates theoretically that population increases will impart a growth premium to agricultural land, due to the expectation of future development as the city expands into an agricultural area. This model was later extended to incorporate uncertainty in future urban rents (Capozza and Helsley 1990). Plantinga, Lubowski, and Stavins find empirical evidence on how uncertainty in rents increases U.S. agricultural land values. These prior studies assume there are only two land uses, namely, agriculture and urban. However, Newburn and Berck found that suburban and rural-residential development are distinct types of residential development. The fundamental difference is that urban and suburban uses require municipal sewer and water service to develop at higher densities (>1 unit per acre).

Impacts of Land-use Management on Small Mammals in the Adirondack Park, New York

We examined the response of small-mammal communities to human disturbance along a gradient from wilderness to managed forest to rural residential development in the Adirondack Park of northern New York. Our objectives were to determine if small-mammal community composition and structure differed among sites along a gradient of human impact and to relate changes in small-mammal community composition to habitat changes along the gradient. We sampled small mammals with track tubes on 10 replicates each of old growth, managed forest, and areas of residential development in the central Adirondacks. We estimated differ- ences in species composition, abundance, diversity, evenness, and community structure, and identified habitat variables associated with differences in these mea- sures. We used canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) to examine the relationship between patterns in small-mammal community composition and sampled habitat variables. Some small-mammal species demonstrated a numerical response to increasing human impact on the landscape, with abundance of total small mammals, eastern chipmunk, and Sorex species highest in old growth and declining in managed forests and areas of residential development. Differences among man- agement types were reflected more strongly in total abundance and community structure than through indices of richness and diversity, which did not differ among management types. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed that 32% of the variability in the small-mammal community could be explained by habitat character- istics and that variables describing availability of coarse woody debris, as well as presence of shrubs in the understory, may create conditions favorable to many small- mammal species in these habitats.

Measuring exurban change in the American West: A case study in Gallatin County, Montana, 1973–2004

Dispersed patterns of rapid rural, or “exurban,” growth in the American West are recognized as key threats to the region's biodiversity through habitat loss and fragmentation. Both planners and ecologists have responded with strategies to minimize the impact of these patterns—strategies which have appeared in local planning policies since the 1990s. This research examined the degree to which these changing policies were effective in changing subdivision patterns in Gallatin County, Montana. Using landscape metrics drawn from landscape ecology and urban sprawl literature, this study tracked changes in metrics across the 1973–2004 time period for regulated subdivision, major and minor, at several spatial scales. The results revealed several distinct trends: (1) major subdivisions became more “clustered” and less land consumptive, (2) minor subdivisions revealed the opposite trend and are recently consuming the more land, (3) distances from existing development decreased for major subdivisions, and (4) increasing numbers of parcels were near or within riparian areas. These findings indicated a differential impact of planning across scales and types of subdivision and a mixed success of planning in mitigating the environmental impacts of rural residential development.

Butterfly community composition and oak woodland vegetation response to rural residential development

Conservation of biodiversity on private lands has become increasingly important, particularly in regions where most of the land is privately owned. This study examined the effects of rural residential development on the oak woodland butterfly community in central California, U.S.A. We sampled butterflies on 26 8-ha sites that spanned a range in development intensity from sites containing small 0.4 ha (1 acre) parcels and highly modified vegetation, to sites contained within parcels greater than 81 ha (200 acres) that were characterized by substantial amounts of undeveloped oak woodland. The percent area of oak woodland vegetation was positively related to parcel size across the range of parcel sizes observed. The numbers of hostplant-specialist butterfly species and univoltine butterfly species were positively correlated with the percent area of oak woodland at a site, while the numbers of multivoltine and hostplant generalist species were higher at sites with smaller parcel sizes and lower percent area of oak woodland vegetation. These trends represent a shift in butterfly species composition from specialist to generalist with loss of historic vegetation and support the notion that zoning for larger parcel sizes may be useful for conserving oak woodland vegetation and its associated biotic diversity.

Clover Hill Dairies: Balancing productivity and treading lightly in the centre of a rural residential development and a rainforest

Clover Hill Dairies is a progressive and highly intensive dairy farm, which currently milks 200 cows on 50 hectares three times a day on steep rainforest hinterland country. Milk production (305 day) currently averages 13 000 litres and 850 kg of milk solids per cow making Clover Hill Dairies one of the highest production dairy farms in Australia. The stud Holstein herd is fed a predominately pasture based diet with supplementary feeding comprising 35-40% of the dietary intake. Clover Hill Dairies aims to optimise the genetic potential of our high end genetic merit herd through close attention to pasture and soil management, biodiversity and the environment. Combining this with the application of the latest scientific principals and technology skills, we produce over 50 000 litres per hectare from the 200 cows. We recognise agriculture is no longer just about farming; it is intrinsically tied in with managing the environment and minimising the impact of human endeavours, hence the ongoing need to balance productivity and progress with minimal environmental footprint. Clover Hill Dairies strives to adopt a holistic decision making process to ensure higher quality of life, financial stability including managing and reducing debt, consistent profitability, and the confidence of knowing that our decisions are improving the environment and the community we live in. The key factors are herd genetics; best practice herd and farm management; the management and operational team; and interaction with the environment and the community.

Modeling Suburban and Rural-Residential Development Beyond the Urban Fringe

<i>This article investigates how land-use regulations differentially influence suburban versus rural-residential development. Particular emphasis is placed on how both the provision of municipal services (e.g., sewer and water) and zoned maximum density constrain higher-density residential development. We estimated a spatially explicit model with parcel data on recent housing development in Sonoma County, California. To account for heterogeneity in compliance with zoning regulations, we used a random-parameter logit model. The designation of sewer and water services was the most important determinant of suburban development. Meanwhile, it did not significantly affect the likelihood of rural-residential development, which actually leapfrogged into areas well beyond them.</i> (JEL Q24, R14, R21)

Ethics of Land Use in Nebraska: Farmer and Consumer Opinions in Washington County

ABSTRACT Agricultural land is rapidly being converted to other uses, as city boundaries expand and acreage and rural residential developments increase. Building on a review of the history of environmental ethics, agroecological principles, Aldo Leopold's concept of the land ethic, and sociological research regarding environmental and agricultural paradigms, this study explored the attitudes of farmers and consumers in Washington County near Omaha, Nebraska, about land ethics relating to agriculture and land use. The objectives of the study were to (1) construct a set of items for measuring land ethics based on previous studies and scales, (2) determine if farmers and consumers in Washington County had positive land ethics, and (3) test for differences in land ethics between farmers and consumers, as well as differences in land ethics based on demographic and farm-related factors. Self-administered mail questionnaires were sent in August 2003 to all Washington County farmers registered with the Farm Service Agency, and 168 useful surveys were analyzed (35% response rate). A representative sample of consumers across the county was surveyed, and 207 useful surveys were analyzed (37% response rate). We found that farmers who owned and farmed large land areas were less concerned about land ethics issues than those with small farms. This study showed that farmers and consumers share an awareness of the importance of the land ethic, land use, and agriculture, contrary to a number of previous studies that showed consumers to be less concerned. In general, demographic variables are not always the best indicators of environmental ethics.

EFFECTS OF EXURBAN DEVELOPMENT ON BIODIVERSITY: PATTERNS, MECHANISMS, AND RESEARCH NEEDS

Low-density rural home development is the fastest-growing form of land use in the United States since 1950. This “exurban” development (∼6–25 homes/km2) includes urban fringe development (UFD) on the periphery of cities and rural residential development (RRD) in rural areas attractive in natural amenities. This paper synthesizes current knowledge on the effects of UFD and RRD. We present two case studies and examine the patterns of biodiversity response and the ecological mechanisms that may underlie these responses. We found that many native species have reduced survival and reproduction near homes, and native species richness often drops with increased exurban densities. Exotic species, some human-adapted native species, and species from early successional stages often increase with exurban development. These relationships are sometimes nonlinear, with sharp thresholds in biodiversity response. These effects may be manifest for several decades following exurban development, so that biodiversity is likely still responding to the wave of exurban expansion that has occurred since 1950. The location of exurban development is often nonrandom relative to biodiversity because both are influenced by biophysical factors. Consequently, the effects on biodiversity may be disproportionately large relative to the area of exurban development. RRD is more likely than UFD to occur near public lands; hence it may have a larger influence on nature reserves and wilderness species. The ecological mechanisms that may underlie these responses involve alteration of habitat, ecological processes, biotic interactions, and increased human disturbance. Research on the patterns and mechanisms of biodiversity remains underdeveloped, and comparative and experimental studies are needed. Knowledge resulting from such studies will increase our ability to understand, manage, and mitigate negative impacts on biodiversity.

Rates and drivers of rural residential development in the Greater Yellowstone

Many natural and semi-natural ecosystems are undergoing dramatic conversions resulting from rapid growth in rural home construction. Yet, rates and drivers of rural residential expansion into previously agricultural and natural landscapes have not been widely analyzed. Immigration and rural development have been exceptionally rapid in the private lands surrounding Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, known as the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem (GYE). Because the GYE has unique ecological value, is still largely undeveloped, and is currently characterized by unrestrictive land use policies, there are prime opportunities for improving regional growth management via the incorporation of scientific knowledge into local land use planning decisions. We quantified rates of growth in rural home construction in the GYE and considered the extent to which biophysical and socio-economic factors explained variation in the spatial pattern of rural home development. We applied generalized linear models and use versus availability analyses to examine specific hypotheses regarding the potential drivers of rural residential development. From 1970 to 1999, the GYE experienced a 58% increase in population and a 350% increase in the area of rural lands supporting exurban housing densities. By 1999, one third of exurban developments were distributed in remote rural locations. Patterns of rural development within the GYE have been strongly influenced by agricultural suitability, transportation and services, natural amenities, past development patterns, and economic and recreational characteristics of nearby towns. The proportion of homes built on highly productive soils and lands proximate to water has remained consistently high throughout the 1900s. We suspect that newer homes continue to be built near water and productive soils because of the influence of early settlement patterns and transportation routes. Our data suggest that the more productive farmlands will likely continue to experience a disproportionate level of development pressure, as will the biologically diverse riparian habitats and the private lands bordering the national parks. This pattern of development has the potential to erode the quality of the lowland habitats most used by park wildlife. Although the possibility exists for continued land use intensification in the GYE, we emphasize the potential for local policy decisions to effectively manage growth in rural residential development.

Biophysical Factors, Land Use, and Species Viability in and around Nature Reserves

Abstract: Many nature reserves are located in landscapes with extreme biophysical conditions. We examined the effects of interactions between biophysical factors and land use on bird population viability inside and outside of Yellowstone National Park. Our hypotheses were as follows: (1) biophysical factors constrain bird species richness and bird reproduction at higher elevations; (2) nature reserves are located at higher elevations, whereas private lands and more intense land use occur mostly at lower elevations with more mild climates and fertile soils; and (3) intense land use at lower elevations favors nest predators and brood parasites and thereby reduces reproductive output for some bird species. We used simulation models to evaluate whether favorable habitats outside reserves are population source areas and whether intense land use can convert these habitats to population sinks and reduce population viability within reserves. Bird species richness and abundance were high in small hotspots in productive, low‐elevation habitats. Length of breeding season—and opportunity for renesting—was greatest at the lowest elevations for both American Robins ( Turdus migratorius) and Yellow Warblers ( Dendroica petechia). Nature reserves were higher in elevation than private lands, so hotspots for bird richness and abundance occurred primarily on or near private lands, where rural residential development was concentrated. Brown‐headed Cowbirds ( Molothrus ater) were significantly more abundant near rural homes, but nests of American Robins were not parasitized and their nest success did not differ with home density. Nests of Yellow Warblers were commonly parasitized by cowbirds, and their nest success was significantly lower near rural homes. Estimated intrinsic population growth ( λ) for American Robins suggested that low‐elevation hotspots were population source areas for this species. Estimated λ for the Yellow Warbler suggested that the entire study area was a population sink, likely due to the effects of intense land use at lower elevations and climate constraints at higher elevations. Removing the effect of land use from the simulations revealed that high‐elevation hotspots were population sinks, whereas low‐elevation hotspots were source areas. Our results are consistent with the possibility that bird‐population source areas outside nature reserves can be converted to population sinks by intense human use, thereby reducing the viability of subpopulations within reserves.

Natural Amenity-Led Development and Rural Planning

Rural America’s economy, culture, and landscape have entered a period of sustained and dramatic change. Patterns of land use and the context of development are increasingly driven by natural resource-based amenity values. Planners face a new breed of economic, social, and environmental issues brought about by this rapid change in land use; driven, in large part, by demands for rural residential developments and recreationally-oriented land uses. This annotated bibliography has been compiled as a primer to the academic literature that relates to this phenomenon.

The role of the Conservation Reserve Program in controlling rural residential development

Rural population growth in the form of residential development frequently results in the loss of agricultural productive land as well as loss of adjacent open space that often characterizes rural communities. A land-use prediction model was used to determine what influence the USDA Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) may have on urban sprawl and rural community sustainability. The model demonstrated that the projected mean rural residential growth rate was almost half the growth rate with CRP as compared to without CRP in the local land management mix. In addition, ecosystem integrity on the land surrounding a rural community was sharply increased with the introduction of CRP. However, community economics and subsequent social character of the community may have been significantly impacted by CRP. In order to partially mitigate CRP-induced community impacts we propose future CRP guidelines support the establishment of within-production field scale ecological refuges. These refuges would satisfy the conservation requirements of the program, return a level of traditional agricultural production to the land management mix, and provide the adjacent community with aesthetic and recreational amenities that are frequently associated with modern rural economies.

Landscape context of rural residential development in southeastern Wisconsin (USA)

Private on-site sewage systems serve residential development in rural landscapes throughout the United States. In the State of Wisconsin, three major types of private sewage systems facilitate residential development on sites that span gradients in slope, soil permeability, depth to bedrock, and depth to water-table. Conventionalsoil-absorption sewage treatment systems are constructed on sites with minimal physiographic constraints; more highly engineered alternative sewage treatment systems are installed on sites with moderate to severe constraints; holding tanks provide no on-site sewage treatment and are employed on sites with the most severe physiographic limitations. An environmental impact statement (EIS), prepared in 1979 on the proposed widespread use of alternative private sewage systems, suggested that alternative systems might facilitate in-fill development on poor sites near existing cities and lead to compact, higher density development patterns. The research reported in this paper tested the validity of this EIS scenario by comparing development patterns associated with a sample of conventional systems, alternative systems, and holding tanks installed during the 1980s in Ozaukee County, Wisconsin. Land use data, soils data, and other site attribute data were assembled and analyzed in a vector geographic information system (GIS). Because each type of private sewage system has a unique set of siting criteria, the three sets of sampled systems are located in significantly different physiographic regions within the County. Collectively, installations of all three systems facilitated scattered residential development throughout the rural landscape. This development consists of relatively small residential patches dispersed within an agricultural matrix. Wastewater management technology, if not constrained by public policies or other socioeconomic factors, can be an important anthropogenic factor influencing both the process and pattern of landscape change.