Rural Kitchens Research Articles

Particle size, carbon composition and sources of indoor dust in Nanchang, China

Indoor dust is an enriched environmental media for lots of chemical pollutants, while indoor pollutants pose high exposure level and health risks to humans. In this work, indoor dust samples from four types of indoor environments (residence near steel plant, residence near road, student dormitory and rural kitchen) in Nanchang city were collected and their particle sizes and carbon components were analyzed. The sources of carbon components were traced based on the distribution of carbon components and the correlation between the components. The particle size distribution mainly presents a bimodal mode (0.1–3 and 10–40 μm size intervals, accounting for 8.9% and 7.4%). The average OC and EC in the as-collected indoor dust samples were 34.1 and 52.7 mg/g for residences around the steel plant, 43.9 and 41.4 mg/g for residences adjacent to the road, 119.3 and 66.4 mg/g for students' dormitories, 73.5 and 49.8 mg/g for rural kitchens, respectively. A strong correlation between OC and Char was observed, indicating strong homology between the sources of the two components. In addition, the correlation between two of EC1, OC2, and OC3 (OC2 and OC3 are fractions of OC and EC1 is a fraction of EC) were significant, indicating a large contribution of motor vehicle exhaust to indoor dust. The average ratios of OC/EC and Char/Soot suggest the contribution of automobile exhaust, indoor smoking and biomass combustion to indoor dust. The results of this work provide a scientific, convenient, and reliable approach to explore the source of particulate matter indoors based on the distribution of carbon components.

Indoor Air Pollution from Household Cooking and Associated Health Hazards of Selected Rural Communities of Madhupur Tract in Bangladesh

Indoor air pollution is deemed one of the most severe environmental pollutions that occur mainly due to the inefficient and incomplete combustion of solid cooking fuels, which emits different types of particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10). Therefore, this study was organized in the hilly rural area of Sagordighi of Tangail district in Bangladesh to monitor the atmospheric particulate matters PM2.5, PM10 and CO (carbon monoxide) concentrations from the rural kitchens as well as the possible health hazards due to exposure of the air pollutants. One hundred and thirty air samples were collected from the kitchens by using Airveda air quality monitor and Testo 317-3 - Ambient CO meter to monitor the particulate matter and carbon-monoxide concentrations respectively during cooking and non-cooking time. A survey was also conducted through questionnaire. The concentrations of PM2.5 fluctuated from 112-999 µgm-3 whereas the mean concentration was 401.88±232 µgm-3 during cooking time. On the other hand, PM10 concentration varied from 114-1999 µgm-3 were observed during cooking time with a mean concentration was 523.10±413 µgm-3. The concentration of PM2.5 varied from 32-362 µgm-3 at non-cooking period while the mean value was 81.38±41 µgm-3. The concentration of PM10 ranged between 55-429 µgm-3 at non-cooking period and the mean of PM10 was 109.51±51 µgm-3. The mean concentration of CO during cooking period was 51.52±17 ppm and it varied from 20 ppm to 96.4 ppm. On the contrary, the mean concentration of CO during non-cooking period was 6.60± 6 ppm and it fluctuated from 0 to 40 ppm. The concentration of atmospheric particulate matter showed the highest concentration during cooking time. Contemplation on the measured concentration of particulate matters, these values were greater than concentration found in many European cities and also surpassed the Bangladesh National Ambient Air Quality Standard. The monitored CO value exceeded the recommended value. Questionnaire survey result indicated that respondents suffered from various diseases due to household cooking activities such as facing eye irritation, headaches, dry cough, dizziness and nasal congestion during cooking time. This research suggests installation of improved cooking stoves and providing proper ventilation facilities in kitchen and using renewable energy as well as creating public awareness among rural communities for minimizing the impacts of pollutants emitted from cooking activities.

Size-distribution and driving factors of aerosol oxidative potential in rural kitchen microenvironments of northeastern India

This study reports size-resolved dithiothreitol (DTT)-based oxidative potential (OP: total and water-soluble) in rural kitchens using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), firewood (FW), and mixed biomass (MB) fuels in northeastern (NE) India. In comparison to LPG, volume-normalized total OP (OPtotal(v)DTT) was enhanced by a factor of ∼5 in biomass-using kitchens (74 ± 35 to 78 ± 42 nmol min−1 m−3); however, mass-normalized total OP (OPtotal(m)DTT) was similar between LPG and FW users and higher by a factor of 2 in MB-using kitchens. The water-insoluble OP (OPwi(v, m)DTT) fraction in OPtotal(v, m)DTT was greater than 50% across kitchens. Size distributions across kitchens and OPDTT categories ranged from unimodal to trimodal. OPws(v)DTT was driven by metals as well as organics across size fractions while OPwi(v)DTT was majorly constrained by metals with an increasing importance of organics in fine particles of biomass-using kitchens. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that Cu and Ba explained 71% of the OPtotal(v)DTT variability in LPG-using kitchens, while water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) and Ba were responsible for 44% variability in FW-using kitchens. Finally, the high internal dose of OPtotal(v)DTT (28–31 nmol min−1 m−3) in biomass-using kitchens established the severity of oxidative stress on the exposed population.

Characteristics of particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollution generated during kitchen cooking and health risk assessment

Recent studies have shown that kitchen pollution is a major concern during cooking. Cooking can release harmful pollutants such as various sizes of particulate matters (PMs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that can harm the human body directly or indirectly. This study examined the harm of pollutants from cooking in different Chinese areas, including concentrations of PMs and size distribution as well as PAHs in rural and urban locations. PMs were collected during cooking, and PAHs in the particular matter were analysed. Additionally, the study conducted pollution risk assessment and economic analysis. The results showed that PMs and PAHs released during cooking in rural kitchens were higher than in urban kitchens. Specifically, PM1.0, PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations were 5.05, 3.39 and 3.78 times higher than in rural kitchens. PAH concentration in rural kitchens was 4.79, 5.82 and 6.30 times higher than in urban kitchens, respectively. Skin contact poses the highest carcinogenic risk amongst the pathways. Females had higher exposure to carcinogens than males. Furthermore, smaller PMs have a higher adsorption capacity for PAHs and are more carcinogenic than larger particles. This study examined the harmful effects of different cooking fuels. It aimed to improve cooking environments and increase the use of clean energy.

Disease burden and health risk to rural communities of northeastern India from indoor cooking-related exposure to parent, oxygenated and alkylated PAHs

Exposure to a total of 51 targeted and non-targeted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their oxygenated and alkylated derivatives associated with size-segregated aerosol was investigated in rural kitchens using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), mixed biomass (MB) and firewood (FW) fuels in northeastern India. The averaged PM10-associated parent-, alkylated-, and oxygenated-PAHs concentrations increased notably from LPG (257, 54, and 116 ng m−3) to MB (838, 119, and 272 ng m−3) to FW-using kitchens (2762, 225, and 554 ng m−3), respectively. PAHs were preferentially associated with the PM1 fraction with contributions increasing from 80 % in LPG to 86 % in MB and 90 % in FW-using kitchens, which in turn was dominated by <0.25 μm particles (54–75 % of the total). A clear profile of enrichment of low-molecular weight PAHs in cleaner fuels (LPG) and a contrasting enrichment of high-molecular weight PAHs in biomass-based fuels was noted. The averaged internal dose of Benzo[a]pyrene equivalent was the lowest in the case of LPG (19 ng m−3), followed by MB (161 ng m−3) and the highest in FW users (782 ng m−3). Estimation of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) from PAH exposure revealed extremely high cancer risk in biomass users (factors of 8–40) compared to LPG. The potential years of life lost (PYLL) and PYLL rate averaged across kitchen categories was higher for lung cancer (PYLL: 10.55 ± 1.04 years; PYLL rate: 204 ± 426) compared to upper respiratory tract cancer (PYLL: 10.02 ± 0.05 years; PYLL rate: 4 ± 7), and the PYLL rates for biomass users were higher by factors of 9–56 as compared to LPG users. These findings stress the need for accelerated governmental intervention to ensure a quick transition from traditional biomass-based fuels to cleaner alternatives for the rural population of northeastern India.

Understanding population exposure to size-segregated aerosol and associated trace elements during residential cooking in northeastern India: Implications for disease burden and health risk

Mass-size distribution of respirable aerosol and 13 associated trace elements (TEs) were investigated in rural kitchens using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), firewood and mixed biomass fuels across three northeastern Indian states. The averaged PM10 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤ 10 μm) and ΣTE concentrations were 403 and 30 μg m−3 for LPG, 2429 and 55 μg m−3 for firewood, and 1024 and 44 μg m−3 for mixed biomass-using kitchens. Mass-size distributions were tri-modal with peaks in the ultrafine (0.05–0.08 μm), accumulation (0.20–1.05 μm), and coarse (3.20–4.57 μm) modes. Respiratory deposition, estimated using the multiple path particle dosimetry model, ranged from 21 % to 58 % of the total concentration across fuel types and population age categories. Head, followed by pulmonary and tracheobronchial, was the most vulnerable deposition region, and children were the most susceptible age group. Inhalation risk assessment of TEs revealed significant non-carcinogenic as well as carcinogenic risk, especially for biomass fuel users. The potential years of life lost (PYLL) was the highest for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD: 15.9 ± 3.8 years) followed by lung cancer (10.3 ± 0.3 years) and pneumonia (10.1 ± 0.1 years), while the PYLL rate was also highest for COPD, with Cr(VI) being the major contributor. Overall, these findings reveal the significant health burden faced by the northeastern Indian population from indoor cooking using solid biomass fuels.

Local gastronomic business - premise for the development of Romanian gastronomic tourism

Currently, most tourist destinations in the world are establishing strategies to develop the culinary identity of their territories and to promote local cuisine, based on the fact that gastronomy can have a great influence on the decisions of tourists in choosing tourist destinations. Therefore, the gastronomic specificity of a destination can attract tourists interested in authenticity, specificity and new experiences from a gastronomic point of view. The gastronomic businesses are some of the most successful businesses, and this is due to a constant demand, which is based on ensuring the need for food. In Romania, the concept of local gastronomic point was recently introduced. The purpose of the local gastronomic points is the integration of gastronomy and tourism in order to support the local economy. The local gastronomic points can be seen as an invitation to discover the local products, prepared in the Romanian rural kitchens. The local gastronomic points meet the gourmets, the people interested in gastronomic experiences, eager to know and enjoy the specific dishes of the local cuisine, the traditions and customs of the locals, the culture of food preparation. The gastronomic heritage on the Romanian territory is rich and varied, and represents an element of the Romanian cultural identity. Gastronomy, as part of the national cultural profile can be an engine in the development of the local economy, through local gastronomic points, and involves the practice of gastronomic tourism. In this article, the authors aim to present the current situation of local gastronomic points in Romania and their importance in the development of gastronomic tourism.

Physical, chemical and optical properties of PM2.5 and gaseous emissions from cooking with biomass fuel in the Indo-Gangetic Plain

The current study was designed to capture real-world cooking process-wise emissions generated by the combustion of mixed biomass fuel in traditional mud cookstoves in rural kitchens of the north Indian state of Uttar-Pradesh during regular meal preparations. Combustion characteristics, including modified combustion efficiency, thermal efficiency and burn rate, were examined to understand their relationship with emissions. Variations were observed in emission factors (EFs) of PM2.5, trace gases, namely CO, CO2, NOx and SO2, for different cooking processes. While the highest emission of PM2.5, CO and SO2 were observed for boiling (7.0 ± 2.7, 68 ± 29.3, 1.0 ± 1.7 gkg−1, respectively), CO2 and NOx recorded the highest EFs for frying (1537 ± 278.2 & 1.6 ± 0.9 gkg−1 respectively). Although the study reported similar carbon content emissions for different processes, high EC emissions were observed for baking (1.1 ± 0.3 gkg−1). A high concentration of K+ (indicating biomass burning) and toxic trace metals including Al, Cu, Sr, Ti, Mo & Cd has been reported in the present study. EFs of black carbon and brown carbon from mixed fuel burning during uncontrolled cooking have been discussed for different cooking processes which are critical inputs to emission inventories and radiative forcing calculation. The processes of frying and sautéing were found to be more consistent in emissions of pollutants than boiling and baking (variability- 13 %-167 %). Overall, this study emphasizes that a measurement of combustion characteristics and cooking method type should also be contemplated along with fuel and stove types during field emission studies.

Effects of indoor air pollution on tribal community in rural India and health risk assessment due to domestic biomass burning: a realistic approach using the lung deposition model.

Indoor air pollution from the combustion of biomass fuel and associated health risks is a critical issue in developing countries. Concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 are measured in Birbhum, West Bengal, during 2017-2018. PM2.5-bound elemental concentrations of twelve metals are determined in rural kitchens. The results showed higher toxicological risks in BMF (1.15) than the LPG users (0.14). The risk of non-carcinogenic exposure related with dermal contact and ingestion was observed in the acceptable limits (HQ < 1) for all age groups, and the risk associated with inhalation exposure from Cr, Ni, As, and Mn exceeded the acceptable limit. Results also suggest that carcinogenic risks from ingestion and dermal contact are within the acceptable limit (1 × 10-4-1 × 10-6) except Cr and As which were found to exceed the range. The deposition flux (Dφ) for multiple metals in the head airway region, tracheobronchial region, and alveolar regions was found to be higher in teenagers as compared to other groups, whereas the value was lower in infants. Further, it was notified from the Dφ that the metals could pass through the head airways and harm the tracheobronchial tree and alveolar region, increasing the risk of human health.

The Gender of Fuelwood: Headloads and Truckloads in India

Cookstove improvement projects in India have emerged from the longstanding concerns about the nexus of cooking, fuelwood, gender and the environment. Such work, both academic and interventionist, focuses on rural women hauling headloads of firewood from the forests to their kitchens, where they burn it for daily cooking in a mud cookstove [ chulha]. We argue that this focus on village women’s cooking is too narrow if we are to understand and address problems caused by burning fuelwood in India, as cookstove campaigns attend to villages and not cities, domestic cooking and not commercial uses, and women and not men. Ethnographic research in Rajasthan and Odisha shows why we must expand our understanding of fuelwood use beyond villages, rural kitchens and women, and how cookstove interventions, often expressed as concern for women, require gender analysis.

Status Quo of Rural Mobile Kitchens in the New Era and the Management Approach

Mobile kitchens are becoming a new industry in rural areas where a certain number of villages cooks initiatively get together, bringing their own cookers, tables, chairs and benches, and other utensils to serve local customers in need of a catering. In recent years, mobile kitchens have become popular in rural areas and are expanding in scale as social and economic conditions continue to improve. However, the development of rural mobile kitchens is still not fully in line with the requirements of rural development in the new era, and there are a lot of problems in many aspects, some of which are even not conform to the development plan of agriculture and rural areas in the new era. Against the background that the central government has established the general policy of giving priority to the development of agriculture and rural areas and made a major decision to implement the strategy of revitalizing the rural areas, it is important to study the status quo and problems in the development and operation of mobile kitchens for the benefit of people's happiness and rural revitalization, which is an important move to achieve sustainable development and historical changes. Taking Poyang County as an example, this paper explored the current situation and management methods of mobile kitchens with the aim of promoting the standardized and institutionalized development of mobile kitchens and responding to the call for modernization of agriculture as well as rural revitalization in the 14th Five-Year Plan.

Understanding exposure risks of women and children to PAHs in biomass using households of Brahmaputra valley

Introduction: Biomass burning is a principal contributor of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the air. A vast majority of rural households in South Asia are still using crude biomass fuel in kitchens causing poor air quality. This pushes the children and women population to severe exposure risk. In this work, 14 PAHs out of 16 priority PAHs of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)-bound to Biomass Fuel Smoke Particles (BFSPs) produced during burning various crude biomass fuels in rural kitchens had been characterized.&#x0D; Materials and methods: Representative rural households were taken for this study. Two sets of samples were collected during dry and wet periods using filter paper by a passive collection method and analyzed by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC).&#x0D; Results: PAHs with even number of rings (2-ring and 4-ring PAHs) dominated the Biomass Fuel Smoke Particles (BFSPs). PAH contents in BFSPs of the wet period were higher than the dry period samples. Different PAH ratios differed from reported studies on ambient atmosphere particulates and test environment. Higher Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) values were found during the wet period compared to the dry period in most BFSPs. The risk via ingestion and dermal contact was about 104 to 105 magnitudes higher than the inhalation risk.&#x0D; Conclusion: The study reported seasonal variation of PAHs from biomass fuels and associated health risks to the exposed population. The higher levels of PAHs and the associated health risks may pose significant risks to the exposed women and children.

Prevalence of respiratory disorder in the Northern population of Gujarat

Introduction: Diseases of respiratory tract are non curable diseases; however there can be increase in quality of life of individual with different types of treatment which leads to major air passages dilatation and shortness of breath improvement is achieved. It was in this context that the current study was undertaken to know the prevalence of chronic respiratory diseases in a rural area of Gujarat District in West India among people aged 20 years and above. Material and Methods: the individual above the age of 20 years in the selected area and who agreed to participate in the study were included in the study. A sample size of 1900 were included in the study. There was administration of modified British medical research council to all the individuals included in the study for the diagnosis of bronchial asthma cases and chronic bronchitis. Results: There were 1000 males and 900 females in the study. Majority of the population were in the age range of 20 – 39 years. The crude prevalence of chronic bronchitis was estimated to be 5.64% for males as compared to 2.23% for females. The prevalence of bronchial asthma in the current study was estimated at 2.10%. Discussion & Conclusion: The reason for the higher prevalence found in the present study is the probable, the majority of the individuals did not use the cleaner fuels in the domestic kitchens. This is found to be common practise in the rural kitchens of North Gujarat. Keywords: Gujarat, Population, Prevalence, Respiratory Disorders.

Ameliorating acute respiratory infections in rural kitchens with a sustainable, cost-effective ventilation solution

Ameliorating acute respiratory infections in rural kitchens with a sustainable, cost-effective ventilation solution

Personal exposure to VOCs (BTX) and women health risk assessment in rural kitchen from solid biofuel burning during cooking in West Bengal, India.

In this study, personal exposure to benzene, toluene and xylene as important VOC species of incomplete combustion are assessed, considering the ventilation condition of the rural kitchens throughout the seasons. Annual mean total BTX levels were 148.51, 76.98, 34.91 and 13.34μgm-3 for the rural kitchens with openness of <25%, 25-50%, 50-75% and >75% respectively. Overall annual mean concentration of benzene, toluene and xylene level was found to be 52.35, 8.85 and 7.23μgm-3 respectively. Annual mean total BTX was found across the openness of the kitchens to be 68.43μgm-3. There was no significant interaction between the independent variables 'openness' and 'season' explaining pollution exposure variability. Openness of the kitchens was the only significant predictor for BTX exposure concentration variation. Average daily dose (ADD) analysis showed median value of 1.439×10-3mg/kg-day with 95% certainty range from 9.04×10-4mg/kg-day to 2.220×10-3mg/kg-day. Hazard index (HI) indicates no significant risk of non-carcinogenic effect from the exposure to benzene, toluene and xylene. In ADD and all non-cancerous risk estimates (HQ of benzene, toluene, xylene), exposure time emerges as the single most contributor whereas, annual average pollutant exposure is the second most risk contributor in all the cases. Lifetime cancer risk of benzene exceeded the acceptable level indicating probable cancer risk and inhalation unit risk alone contributes above 75%; exposure time came after with 16.3% contribution.

Personal exposure to PM2.5 in Chinese rural households in the Yangtze River Delta.

High levels of PM2.5 exposure and associated health risks are of great concern in rural China. For this study, we used portable PM2.5 monitors for monitoring concentrations online, recorded personal time-activity patterns, and analyzed the contribution from different microenvironments in rural areas of the Yangtze River Delta, China. The daily exposure levels of rural participants were 66μg/m3 (SD 40) in winter and 65μg/m3 (SD 16) in summer. Indoor exposure levels were usually higher than outdoor levels. The exposure levels during cooking in rural kitchens were 140μg/m3 (SD 116) in winter and 121μg/m3 (SD 70) in summer, the highest in all microenvironments. Winter and summer values were 252μg/m3 (SD 103) and 204μg/m3 (SD 105), respectively, for rural people using biomass for fuel, much higher than those for rural people using LPG and electricity. By combining PM2.5 concentrations and time spent in different microenvironments, we found that 92% (winter) and 85% (summer) of personal exposure to PM2.5 in rural areas was attributable to indoor microenvironments, of which kitchens accounted for 24% and 27%, respectively. Consequently, more effective policies and measures are needed to replace biomass fuel with LPG or electricity, which would benefit the health of the rural population in China.

Architectural Design Solution for Reducing Smoke Build-Up inside Rural Kitchens in Kenya, Africa

Architectural Design Solution for Reducing Smoke Build-Up inside Rural Kitchens in Kenya, Africa Uwe Reischl, Lauren Haggerty, Olga Salinas Abstract Families living in rural Africa must rely on burning biomass as their fuel source for cooking. Examples of biomass sources include including wood, dried dung and crop residue, all of which produce high levels of smoke. Repeated long-term exposure to the smoke can cause pneumonia, emphysema and lung cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 2 million persons die prematurely each year as a result of such exposure. The persons most affected are women and their young children. Scientists, engineers and public health professionals have attempted to address this problem in the past but have focused primarily on the use of more efficient stoves. New stoves are often difficult to maintain and cost more than families can afford. The introduction of innovative architectural ventilation design solutions has not been reported in literature. To determine whether new architectural design approaches could be used cost-effectively in reducing indoor air pollution, scale-model based laboratory simulations were carried out to study the thermodynamic and airflow characteristics inside traditional kitchens. The tests revealed that use of window and roof openings to increase ventilation negatively impacts smoke removal by lowering convection (buoyancy) of the smoke generated by a fire. Based on this insight, a new architectural design approach was developed which allows the smoke to exit the kitchen freely in spite of limited convection. The scale-model simulations yielded an 85% reduction of indoor smoke-build up. Testing of a full-scale prototype kitchen in Kenya, Africa showed a reduction of indoor kitchen smoke build-up in excess of 95%. Implementation of this design in the form of a retro-fit option for existing rural kitchens is proposed. Improvements in the health and wellbeing of women and children in rural communities is hoped for. Full Text: PDF DOI: 10.15640/jea.v7n1a1

Global Estimation of Exposure to PM2.5 from Household Air Pollution

Background: Household air pollution (HAP) exposure from cooking with dirty fuels is a major global health risk factor. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated significant variation in particulate matter concentrations of diameter &amp;#8804; 2.5 micrometers (PM2.5), an important metric for using integrated exposure&amp;#8211;response functions to assess risks. To characterize global HAP-PM2.5 exposures, novel estimation methods are needed, as financial/resource constraints render it difficult to monitor exposures in all relevant areas.Methods: A Bayesian, hierarchical HAP-PM2.5 global exposure model was developed using kitchen and female HAP-PM2.5 exposure data available in published, peer-reviewed studies. Cooking environment characteristics and quantitative HAP-PM2.5 measurements from 47 studies were used to model urban and rural, fuel- and country-specific (traditional wood, improved biomass, coal, dung and gas/electric stoves) 24-hour HAP-PM2.5 kitchen concentrations and male, female and child exposures for 106 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America.Results: A model incorporating fuel/stove type, urban/rural location and the socio-demographic index resulted in a Bayesian R2 of 0.57. Estimated global average 24-hour HAP-PM2.5 concentrations in rural kitchens using traditional, improved biomass, animal dung, and coal stoves were 320 &amp;#956;g/m3, 180 &amp;#956;g/m3, 1,760 &amp;#956;g/m3 and 400 &amp;#956;g/m3, respectively, higher than in rural kitchens using gas/electricity. Modeled female exposures from traditional wood stoves varied from 90&amp;#8211;260 across countries, on average, with urban area exposures 40 &amp;#956;g/m3 less than those in rural areas. Male and child rural area exposures from traditional wood stoves ranged from 60-190 and 80-230 &amp;#956;g/m3, respectively; urban area exposures were 10 &amp;#956;g/m3 less than rural area exposures, among both sub-groups.Conclusions: A global exposure model incorporating type of fuel-stove combinations adds specificity and reduces exposure misclassification for estimation of HAP risk.

Exposures to Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) among Rural and Urban Households in Southern India in Relation to Primary Cooking Fuels

Background: Emissions from cooking fuels that include many health damaging pollutants such as fine particulate matter and a range of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a major public health concern in low and middle income countries (LMICs). Despite the ubiquity of exposures in India, VOC profiles in rural and urban households are poorly understood. Methods: We report results from cooking period measurements conducted in 112 (56 biomass, 23 kerosene and 34 gas using ) rural and urban households that were part of the larger Tamil Nadu Air Pollution and Health Effects (TAPHE) cohort study in Southern India. Samples were collected on a mixed-bed sorbent (Tenax and Carbopack) tubes. Active air sampling was performed using pre-calibrated constant flow pumps (SKC Inc., PA, USA) set to a flow rate of 0.1 L/min for 100 min. An automated thermal desorption unit connected to GC-MS system was used to quantify 59 VOCs. Pentafluorobenzene, 1,4-difluorobenzene and chlorobenzene-d5 were used as internal standards and percent recovery ranged from 81.7% to 119.9%.Results: Total VOC (TVOC) concentrations in rural homes (4426.8 µg/m3) were significantly higher when compared to urban homes (2010.9 µg/m3). Toluene, styrene, m,p-xylene and benzene were dominant in rural kitchens whereas toluene, m,p-xylene, benzene and isopropyltoluene were dominant in urban kitchens during cooking. Mean TVOC concentrations were the highest in biomass using homes (4617 µg/m3) followed by LPG (2839.7 µg/m3) and kerosene (1639.8 µg/m3) respectively. Benzene levels consistently exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Guideline value of 5µg/m3 in all rural and urban homes. Winter season, open field burning and industry nearby were associated with significantly higher VOC concentrations.Conclusions: Additional large scale assessments of population exposure to VOCs are needed in LMICs to better characterize health risks associated with solid fuel use.

Global estimation of exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from household air pollution

BackgroundExposure to household air pollution (HAP) from cooking with dirty fuels is a leading health risk factor within Asia, Africa and Central/South America. The concentration of particulate matter of diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5) is an important metric to evaluate HAP risk, however epidemiological studies have demonstrated significant variation in HAP-PM2.5 concentrations at household, community and country levels. To quantify the global risk due to HAP exposure, novel estimation methods are needed, as financial and resource constraints render it difficult to monitor exposures in all relevant areas. MethodsA Bayesian, hierarchical HAP-PM2.5 global exposure model was developed using kitchen and female HAP-PM2.5 exposure data available in peer-reviewed studies from an updated World Health Organization Global HAP database. Cooking environment characteristics were selected using leave-one-out cross validation to predict quantitative HAP-PM2.5 measurements from 44 studies. Twenty-four hour HAP-PM2.5 kitchen concentrations and male, female and child exposures were estimated for 106 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. ResultsA model incorporating fuel/stove type (traditional wood, improved biomass, coal, dung and gas/electric), urban/rural location, wet/dry season and socio-demographic index resulted in a Bayesian R2 of 0.57. Relative to rural kitchens using gas or electricity, the mean global 24-hour HAP-PM2.5 concentrations were 290 μg/m3 higher (range of regional averages: 110, 880) for traditional stoves, 150 μg/m3 higher (range of regional averages: 50, 290) for improved biomass stoves, 850 μg/m3 higher (range of regional averages: 310, 2600) for animal dung stoves, and 220 μg/m3 higher (range of regional averages: 80, 650) for coal stoves. The modeled global average female/kitchen exposure ratio was 0.40. Average modeled female exposures from cooking with traditional wood stoves were 160 μg/m3 in rural households and 170 μg/m3 in urban households. Average male and child rural area exposures from traditional wood stoves were 120 μg/m3 and 140 μg/m3, respectively; average urban area exposures were identical to average rural exposures among both sub-groups. ConclusionsA Bayesian modeling approach was used to generate unique HAP-PM2.5 kitchen concentrations and personal exposure estimates for all countries, including those with little to no available quantitative HAP-PM2.5 exposure data. The global exposure model incorporating type of fuel-stove combinations can add specificity and reduce exposure misclassification to enable an improved global HAP risk assessment.