Rural Drinking Water Supply Research Articles

Employment generation potentials in the implementation of a rural drinking water supply program: evidence from India's Jal Jeevan Mission

ABSTRACT Policymakers in India are finding it challenging to generate adequate employment to meet the requirements of growing population. An avenue consistently used is to invest in large-scale public infrastructure projects. In 2019, the Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) was launched with the aim of providing potable drinking water to every rural household in India. Underscoring the large investments in infrastructure development, the mission holds significant potential to create employment. The evidence base of studies assessing the effect of rural development programs on employment was weak. Against this backdrop, we assessed the employment generation potential of JJM at various phases of its implementation. We utilized secondary and scheme-level primary data across states of India and used the input-output model and ratio method to assess employment prospects. Our results suggest that JJM has the potential to generate an average of 5.99 million person-year of direct and 22.25 million person-year of indirect employment during the construction phase, and 1.11 million person-year of additional direct employment annually during the maintenance phase. Our study highlights the spillover effects of public investments in the form of employment generation and indicates that the impact of JJM is likely to be substantial once the program is complete and operational.

Technical and Environmental Problems Creation and Operation of a Rural Drinking Water Supply System in the Northern Steppe Areas of the Mykolaiv Region, Ukraine

Technical and Environmental Problems Creation and Operation of a Rural Drinking Water Supply System in the Northern Steppe Areas of the Mykolaiv Region, Ukraine

Drinking Water Plan for Narsinghpur District

Water is the most important commodity of this large ecological system. Looking to the scarcity/ rareness and importance of pure water, water is an intrusive and the most important factor for the genesis of all the living organism, flora and fauna. All lives are dependent on water. It is the priceless gift of nature and is present in a very limited quantity. Its use should be judicious considering the national development and conservation for future. Looking to the current data total water available from precipitation the country is about 4000 Billon cubic meter. The availability from surface water and replenishable ground water is 1869 BCM. Out of this only 60% of this available water i.e. 1122 BCM (Surface Water 690 BCM and Ground water 432 BCM) can be used and may be considered as available water resource of the country. One more point to be noted is that water is not available uniformly at all places and at all time. In India more then 50% of Urban and Industrial water supply, more than 85% of rural drinking water supply and more than 50% irrigation requirement is dependent on Ground water. In many parts of the country water is being taken out more rapidly from the water wearing formations as compared to the natural refilling which is called the ground water recharge. Water table in these places is falling constanty. Increasing rate of population growth and pressure of development are mainly responsible for this situation. For enhancing productivity and taking cash crops are resulting high tapping of the groundwater everywhere as well as in Madhya Pradesh also. Therefore water resource utilization of an area should be planned keeping in view the availability and demand. Such a planning is presented in this paper for Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh.

Challenges in developing trust in the rural drinking water supply systems

Abstract The water sector in developing countries continues to tackle the emergent challenges of increasing demand for water by the growing population, poor cost recovery from the users, ageing infrastructure and intermittent water supply regime. The national and sub-national governments entrusted the community to tackle these challenges. This led to the emergence of community-managed rural water supply systems where ‘Building Trust with Stakeholders’ is an essential concern for the sustainable functioning of the rural drinking water supply schemes. Trust is developed by engaging stakeholders in decision-making and the overall knowledge-sharing process. However, maintaining and sustaining trust is challenging in the context of the above-mentioned challenges. Amongst all the concerned stakeholders of the water sector, building the service provider's trust with the residential water users is an important aspect. Building upon the given context, this study attempts to understand the trustful relationship among the three key stakeholders of the rural drinking water sector: Scheme operating agencies, village local self-government bodies and their residential water users. The study aims to utilise the learnings from the trust research to empirically understand the factors shaping the trustful relationship between the stakeholders in India's rural drinking water sector.

Distribution of Clean Water Quality Levels in SPAMDes Ngudi Tirto Kulon Progo

Clean water must be met in terms of quality, quantity and continuity. Clean water quality that has not been met according to quality standards will harm people’s health. Rural communities often face the problem of unmet quality of clean water. The Ngudi Tirto Rural Drinking Water Supply System serves the clean water needs of the Kebonromo hamlet community. Water sampling is needed to determine its quality level. Sampling was carried out at several points to determine the distribution of quality levels. The quality levels taken are pH, Fe, KMnO4 and DO. The distribution of water quality levels was analysed using ArcGIS software with the IDW method. Clean water quality standards are based on Minister of Health Regulation no. 32 of 2017. Based on the results of water quality levels, it shows that the pH value is between 6.9 and 7.8. Fe quality levels obtained values between 0.1 mg/l and 0.3 mg/l. The quality level of KMnO4 obtained values between 6.162 mg/l and 15.01 mg/l. And the DO quality level obtained a value between 1.15 mg/l and 2.7 mg/l. The distribution of clean water quality levels along the distribution network is as follows, for pH levels of 100% which meet quality standards, Fe levels of 100% which meet quality standards, KMnO4 levels of 87.5% which meet quality standards and DO levels which do not meet quality standards.

Factors related to the functionality of community-based rural water supply and sanitation program in Indonesia

This study used multinomial logistic regression and Bayesian belief networks (BBN) to analyze factors influencing the functionality of the community-based rural drinking water supply and sanitation program (PAMSIMAS) in Indonesia. 28,936 PAMSIMAS projects in 33 provinces in Indonesia were analyzed. The data indicates that 85.4% of the water supply systems were fully functioning, 9.1% were partially functioning, and 5.5% were not functioning. In the regression analysis, good management is positively associated with functionality and a high investment per capita is negatively associated with the functionality. The latter suggests the need for comprehensive economic analysis in the feasibility study in scattered housing sites and remote-undeveloped areas. We also found that high community participation at the beginning of the project was associated with the not functioning system, while women’s participation was positively associated with the functionality. Furthermore, the household connection is more likely to be functioning than communal connection. BBN analysis shows if the beneficiaries do not pay for water, the probability of not functioning systems is 20 times higher than systems with fee collection. Moreover, the combination of strong management, strong financial status, and household connection rather than communal connection increases the probability of fully functioning to 98%. Improvement of data collection is also necessary to monitor the current conditions of all PAMSIMAS systems in Indonesia. This study offers a country-level perspective for better implementation of the community-based rural water supply and sanitation program in developing countries.

Status of Raw Water Management Sustainability Based on Local Wisdom on Rural Water Supply in Bali, Indonesia

The provision of rural drinking water in Bali Province is mostly managed independently by the community. The rural drinking water supply system is sufficient to contribute to community drinking water services. Preservation of raw water sources and the environment through the application of local wisdom Tri Hita Karana greatly determines the sustainability of raw water source management in rural drinking water supply systems in Bali Province. The method of analyzing the sustainability status of raw water management from the social, economic, ecological, technological, and institutional dimensions uses the Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) method. The sustainability index on the analysis results on the ecological dimension is 63.52%, the economic dimension is 51.82%, the social dimension is 55.59%, the technological dimension is 49.30% and the institutional dimension is 51.20%. The status of sustainability with sufficient categories is found in the ecological, economic, social, and institutional dimensions. The lever factor on the sustainability dimension of raw water management in the rural drinking water supply system in Bali Province is 21 attributes of the lever factor. The leverage factor attribute in each sustainability dimension is very sensitive to the sustainability index value. In the dimension of technology sustainability, there are 5 attributes of lever factors that need to be repaired, refined, and improved, including facilities and infrastructure for rural drinking water supply systems for the sustainability of the technological dimension.

Drinking water quality as a risk factor for pupils’ health in rural schools in Serbia

Abstract Background Access to safe drinking water in schools is essential for a good health, wellbeing, learning and dignity of pupils. The rural schools are most frequently connected to the rural water supply system or own water supply source, where the monitoring of drinking water quality is scarced. The study was conducted in the rural regions in Serbia in 2016, aiming at assessing drinking water quality and sanitary conditions of school water supply facilities. Methods In total 238 school facilities, including 108 in Šumadija and 130 in Pomoravlje District were investigated using laboratory testing of drinking water and sanitary inspection. Results Study revealed that 32% of analysed samples showed microbiological faecal contamination with bacteria E. coli, while 52% of samples showed physico-chemical non-compliance with the national standards, where higher nitrates were the most common cause. Overall non-compliance of drinking water from school rural water supply systems amounted to 66% of tested water samples. This study also showed the main technical shortcomings of school water supply facilities and distribution networks such as the lack of fencing of the water source, damaged or absence of drainage channels from the well concrete floor and poor construction characteristics of wells. Conclusions The results of this study, particularly presence of E. coli in drinking water may affect pupils’ health and is a consequence of poor sanitary conditions and maintenance of small rural drinking water supply systems and individual wells. It is necessary to provide continuous disinfection of water available in schools and to undertake measures for technical improvements in order to provide better sanitary protection of water sources and other water supply facilities in rural schools. Key messages • Drinking water quality in schools is vital for children public health. • Raise awareness of local community on drinking water safety and enforce continuous monitoring of drinking water quality in small rural water supply systems in schools.

Seasonal and Spatial Variations in the Presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Rural Drinking Water Supply Systems in Different Municipalities of Antioquia, Colombia

This study evaluated the seasonal and spatial variations in the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in rural drinking water supply systems of different municipalities of Antioquia. The municipalities evaluated were Envigado, Caldas, Sabaneta, La Estrella, Itagüi, Bello, Barbosa, Copacabana, and Girardota, located in the department of Antioquia, Colombia. The experimentation was carried out over 9 sampling campaigns in the period between July 2019 and November 2020. This period encompassed the two seasons presented in Colombia: dry and wet. Each municipality included in this study has a conventional basic drinking water treatment system (DWTS) which includes sand trap, rapid filtration, and chlorination. The results showed good removal efficiencies of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the DWTS evaluated. However, evaluation of other characteristics of water quality and of the water quality risk index for human consumption (IRCA) showed concerning water quality conditions in the rural drinking water systems supply. The prevailing risk levels of the drinking water are medium, high, or non-viable sanitary, which means the population is supplied with water that does not meet the minimum quality criteria established by Colombian regulations.

PERENCANAAN SISTEM JARINGAN DISTRIBUSI SISTEM PENYEDIAAN AIR MINUM PEDESAAN (SPAMDES) DI DESA PEDAWA KECAMATAN BANJAR BULELENG

Water is a very important natural resource for mankind. Pedawa Village of Banjar Subdistrict located in the southern part of Buleleng Regency with an area of 16.68 km2 which has limited clean water services. Where the level of SPAMDES service which is only 29% or 1,672 people out of 5,733 people causes the fulfillment of clean water in Pedawa Village is still low, there are 4 springs used in SPAM Pedawa Village but not all communities get water, so it is necessary to plan an optimal rural drinking water supply network system (SPAMDES). The planning of this distribution network system is assisted by WaterNet where the software uses energy potential to see the extent to which water from the spring can flow through the distribution network.. The data required in this planning are elevation, discharge and coordinate point to calculate energy loss, pipe length and pump head and the number of residents of the last 6 years for projected population growth for 20 years. The results of projected water needs in the service area were obtained for Lambo Reservoir 54 m3, Lambo2 Reservoir 99 m3, Bangkiang Sidem1 Reservoir 45 m3, Bangkiang Sidem2 Reservoir 45 m3, Reservoir Gelunggang 75 m3, Asah Reservoir 15 m3, Insakan Reservoir 9 m3 and Munduk Waban Reservoir 1.5 m3. Based on the results of network simulations with galvanized pipes and flow systems with pumps and gravity obtained results for Constant and Extended flow types on WaterNet hydraulically the network can provide services as desired on each node. Where the pipe for the transmission network is obtained a pipe diameter of 10 and 5 cm, and for the distribution network obtained a pipe diameter of 15, 10 and 5 cm

Strategi Manajemen KPSPAMS Tirta Mulya Dalam Penerapan Iuran Pelanggan Air Minum Untuk Desa Keberlanjutan PAMSIMAS

Achieving the SDG's target of providing access to drinking water for the entire community requires effort and hard work from the government. Several drinking water infrastructure development programs have been launched by the government to meet basic service needs for the community, especially in rural areas. However, in the development phase of the construction phase, the developed Village SPAM experienced different developments. This study aims to determine the sustainability of the community based rural drinking water supply system and the factors that influence it sustainability of the system. This research uses a qualitative approach with a case study method. The research design used is an olistic multicase study with two research villages, namely Piji Village and Gintungan Village. The results of the Continuation of SPAM in Mekar Jaya Village since 2017 have become part of one of the BUMDES business units in Mekar Jaya Village. Home connected services have grown from SR 50 at the start of operations to SR 235 in 2018. And in inkind since PAMSIMAS 1 support from HID and PAMSIMAS III. Likewise, they also accept that the residents are willing to pay the water usage fee of Rp. 1.500/m3 and a management fee of Rp. 2,000/month. The community did not object because they considered it the amount of water they received.

Community-Scale Rural Drinking Water Supply Systems Based on Harvested Rainwater: A Case Study of Australia and Vietnam

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems can be used to produce drinking water in rural communities, particularly in developing countries that lack a clean drinking water supply. Most previous research has focused on the application of RWH systems for individual urban households. This paper develops a yield-after-spillage water balance model (WBM) which can calculate the reliability, annual drinking water production (ADWP) and benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of a community-scale RWH system for rural drinking water supply. We consider multiple scenarios regarding community aspects, including 150–1000 users, 70–4800 kL rainwater storage, 20–50 L/capita/day (LCD) drinking water usage levels, local rainfall regimes and economic parameters of Australia (developed country) and Vietnam (developing country). The WBM analysis shows a strong correlation between water demand and water supply with 90% system reliability, which allows both Australian and Vietnamese systems to achieve the similar capability of ADWP and economic values of the produced drinking water. However, the cost of the Vietnamese system is higher due to the requirement of larger rainwater storage due to larger household size and lower rainfall in the dry season, which reduces the BCR compared to the Australian systems. It is found that the RWH systems can be feasibly implemented at the water price of 0.01 AUD/L for all the Vietnamese scenarios and for some Australian scenarios with drinking water demand over 6 kL/day.

A Novel Intelligent Leakage Monitoring-Warning System for Sustainable Rural Drinking Water Supply

Leakage occurs in rural water supply pipelines very often and its locating is quite demanding even for specialists, which could result in a poor operation efficiency of rural water supply projects and thus a low rural water supply guarantee rate. In view of this problem, the detection of leakage, as well as its prediction, is of great significance for the operation, maintenance, and administration of rural water supply projects. The traditional monitoring-warning systems for urban water distribution networks cannot be applied to rural water distribution networks, due to various limitations. Meanwhile, as with the traditional models, most new approaches based on machine learning such as the artificial neural network (ANN), probabilistic neural network (PNN), and statistical learning theory (SLT) do not fit rural water distribution networks much better, being unable to converge and force high-accuracy results with small sample sizes, which is a crucial demand to meet when dealing with rural water supply pipelines. Extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), a model that specializes in small sample sizes and has a high generalization ability, was applied to a rural water supply project in Ningxia, China. In this study, a monitoring-warning system featuring both leakage locating and quantity estimation was established based on XGBoost. The accuracy and F1-score of the leakage locating model were 95% and 93%, respectively, while those of the leakage quantity model reached 96% and 97%, respectively. Furthermore, the pressure of monitoring stations could be obtained through the feature importance analysis enabled by XGBoost, which is essential for leakage warning. These results indicate that this system based on XGBoost could be a promising solution to the leakage issue in rural water supply projects, as a great inspiration for future developments in intelligent monitoring-warning systems, thus providing reliable approaches for the sustainable development of rural drinking water supply projects.

Strategi Pengelolaan Sistem Penyediaan Air Minum yang Berkelanjutan di Perdesaan

Abstract. The sustainability of rural drinking water supply systems (SPAM) is an important development issue in Indonesia related to the low access to clean and healthy water in rural areas. The low level of drinking water service in rural areas is inseparable from the failure of drinking water development which is caused by the absence of an optimal rural drinking water supply system. As happened in post-Pamsimas villages in Jember Regency. This condition is the background for researchers in conducting studies to find out what factors affect the sustainability of the use of SPAM facilities and infrastructure that are built, especially from the Pamsimas program based on the fulfillment of the KPI (Key Performance Indicator) target, namely KPI 3 related to the management of "sustainable service provision. drinking water for the community ”. This study aims to find out how the sustainability of community-based village SPAM after it has been built and what strategies must be applied to ensure the sustainability of the SPAM management is adjusted to the existing conditions in Jember Regency based on case studies in 19 villages after Pamsimas 2017 fiscal year. The research analysis used qualitative and quantitative descriptive and SWOT analysis. The results showed the management of rural SPAM in Jember Regency has not been optimal with the fulfillment of the KPI target in 3 villages after Pamsimas FY 2017 is still 78.95% (<90%), the weighted score of the EFAS and IFAS Matrix (or IE Matrix) results analysis of internal and external factors are (0.30; 0.76). The right strategy to ensure the sustainability of rural SPAM management in Jember Regency is the SO (Strengths – Opportunities) strategy, which is a strategy to achieve policy objectives by utilizing the strengths and potentials/opportunities possessed through collaboration and partnerships with stakeholders (Development, Local Government, Universities, private sector, banking) as well as the beneficiary community. Keywords: village SPAM, sustainability, access to safe and safe drinking water, SWOT analysis

Institutional, technical and financial sustainability of rural piped drinking water supply on a freshwater island: Case study of Likoma Island, Malawi

AbstractSustainable Development Goal 6 addresses the protection for both drinking water and lakes, and this is especially important for residents of a freshwater island. This study explores the institutional, technical and economic sustainability of a piped drinking water system operating on Likoma Island in Lake Malawi. Data were collected through household surveys and an analysis of historical records. Proximity and accessibility analyses were also conducted for households (n = 185) and their water sources. The results indicated that within 10 years after implementation of the system, 98% of the respondents had piped drinking water within 250 m of their households. Challenges to system sustainability unique to an island setting include the need for boat transportation, inconsistent electrical power supply and lack of island banking services. Factors contributing to broader system success include fishing households with cash income, limited dependence on communal taps, a strong mainland partner, tourism‐supported financial management, high payment rate amongst government institutions, system costs covered by pricing of water for customers and a manager with a high level of decision‐making authority. Opportunities to make the system more sustainable include reducing non‐revenue water losses, using drones or buying a dedicated boat for transport to the island and improving self‐sufficiency on the island to respond to equipment emergencies. Rural drinking water supplies in remote lake island communities must meet unique requirements for sustainable operation, and the institutional, technical and economic sustainability factors of Likoma Island illustrate a successful system likely to sustainably continue its operations into the future.

Assessing the role of groundwater recharge from tanks in crystalline bedrock aquifers in Karnataka, India, using hydrochemical tracers

The majority of India’s rural drinking water supply is sourced from groundwater, which also plays a critical role in irrigated agriculture, supporting the livelihoods of millions of users. However, recent high abstractions are threatening the sustainable use of groundwater, and action is needed to ensure continued supply. Increased managed aquifer recharge (MAR) using the > 200,000 existing tanks (artificially created surface water bodies) is one of the Indian government’s key initiatives to combat declining groundwater levels. However, few studies have directly examined the effectiveness of tank recharge, particularly in the complex fractured hydrogeology of Peninsular India. To address this gap, this study examined the impact of tanks in three crystalline bedrock catchments in Karnataka, southern India, by analysing the isotopic and hydrochemical composition of surface waters and groundwaters, combined with groundwater level observations. The results indicate that tanks have limited impact on regional groundwater recharge and quality in rural areas, where recharge from precipitation and groundwater recycling from irrigation dominate the recharge signal. In the urban setting (Bengaluru), impermeable surfaces increased the relative effect of recharge from point sources such as tanks and rivers, but where present, pipe leakage from public-water-supply accounted for the majority of recharge. Shallow groundwater levels in the inner parts of the city may lead to groundwater discharge to tanks, particularly in the dry season. We conclude that the importance of aquifer recharge from tanks is limited compared to other recharge sources and highly dependent on the specific setting. Additional studies to quantify tank recharge and revisions to the current guidelines for national groundwater recharge estimations, using a less generalised approach, are recommended to avoid over-estimating the role tanks play in groundwater recharge.

Application of the Water Service Sustainability Index to water services in sub-Saharan Africa: the case studies of eight councils in the Southern region of Cameroon (Central Africa)

Abstract The aim of this article is to assess the sustainability of rural water service in the Mvila Division (Southern region of Cameroon) in order to constructively feed the debate on the most effective ways to improve access to rural water service in sub-Saharan Africa. The methodological approach was based on the application of the Water Service Sustainability Index (WSSI) and was implemented through technical inspection of the rural drinking water supply system (RDWSS), the semi-structured interview, and a survey of 103 service providers. Results show that the sustainability performance of rural water service in the Mvila Division is poor–medium. The highest aggregate value of the WSSI was obtained in the Mvangan council (59.54%) followed by the Ngoulemakong council (47.99%), Biwong Bulu (38.53%), Efoulan (33.99%), Biwong Bane (31.51%), Ebolowa I (28.96%), Ebolowa II (28.19%), and Mengong (26.57%). Results also show that rural water service is influenced by factors such as the low pricing of rural water service, climate risk, the poor structuring of the maintenance chain, and the weak commitment of the municipal authorities. However, this study represents only a current snapshot of rural water service delivery conditions and should be conducted at regular intervals to track changes in overall and local conditions.

The influence of water source protection zone delimitation on development in Huanren Manchu Autonomous County

Under the background of rapid urbanization and industrialization development, in order to satisfy the increasing demand of residents for domestic water, the establishment of water source protection zone is the most effective way to protect water resources at present. However, the influence on the social and economic development could not be ignored. The article analyzes the influence of the delimitation of water source protection zone on economy such as ecological migration, urban municipal pipe network construction, rural drinking water and urban water supply. The impact on economy like industrial enterprises, agricultural planting, livestock industry, aquaculture, tourist industry were also mentioned. The article triggers the exploration of the way to realize the coordination and sustainable development of economy, society, resources and environment

Nitrate management in a rural drinking water supply

Bench-scale biological denitrification experiments were performed to evaluate efficiency of a local agricultural waste product, cornstalk, as a carbon feedstock, compared to a traditional feedstock, acetate, and to ion exchange. Additionally, a rural drinking water supply was monitored over a 16-month period to determine nitrate concentrations and establish baseline water quality conditions in wells and in the distribution system. Over the monitoring program, four groundwater wells remained consistently below the 10 mg/L MAC for nitrate, while levels in a fifth supply well were consistently near or above the MAC, with an average concentration of 8.36 ± 4.26 mg/L NO3−-N. Nitrate concentrations in a local private well were also regularly above the MAC, averaging 13.94 ± 9.71 mg/L NO3−-N. CSMR levels at all sampling points were well above the threshold that indicates potential lead corrosion – a factor to consider when evaluating nitrate treatments. Acetate columns were highly effective, achieving 95% nitrate removal in groundwater. Cornstalk columns achieved removal rates of 35% and 49% by single columns and two columns in series, respectively. Results were compared to ion exchange using a commercial nitrate-selective resin. Removal of approximately 10 mg/L of nitrate from an initial concentration of 20 mg/L were achieved near 300–400 bed volumes; however, CSMR would be expected to increase by 0.34 for every mg/L of NO3−-N removed.

Optimizing Rural Drinking Water Supply Infrastructure to Account for Spatial Variations in Groundwater Quality and Household Welfare in Coastal Bangladesh

AbstractAchieving water security requires reconciling multiple objectives while prioritizing scarce resources for the provision of safe drinking water supplies. We examine decision‐making to invest in drinking water infrastructure in coastal Bangladesh where increasing saline intrusion in aquifers intersects with high levels of poverty for the 20 million people living in the coastal region. Multi‐objective optimization is used to explore the trade‐offs between two public policy goals: (a) maximizing overall access to improved water supplies (the greater good) and (b) maximizing access for the population with the lowest welfare (the greater need). To elucidate this trade‐off, we make use of groundwater salinity measurements, an extensive household survey and an audit of drinking water infrastructure in 1 out of Bangladesh’s 139 polders, which is home to nearly 60,000 people. We quantify the costs of a variety of drinking water supply options including deep tube wells, desalination plants, and piped systems. The recommended solutions are sequences of investments in water supply assets that are optimized to specified locations within the polder. The method is potentially scalable and transferrable to inform investments to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (Target 6.1) of universal access to safe and affordable drinking water.