Rural Agricultural Households Research Articles

Smoothing consumption in times of illness: Household recourse mechanisms.

We study the welfare impacts of illness shocks on rural agricultural households in the semi-arid tropical and humid eastern regions of India. These regions are characterized by rainfed agriculture, missing markets for credit and insurance, and limited access to publicly funded healthcare infrastructure. We find that illness shocks increase households' medical expenditures and reduce wage income. However, aggregate non-medical, food, and non-food consumption expenditures are insensitive to illness shocks. Disaggregating illness by the age and the gender of the household members, we observe that illness in male children leads to the largest increase in medical expenditure, and illness in prime-aged adults leads to the largest decline in per-capita wage earnings. We also find illness shocks leading to changes in household dietary diversity, higher travel expenditures, and a compensating reduction in spending on education and entertainment. Analysis of risk-coping strategies reveals that households rely on transfers from kinship networks and loans from informal sources like local moneylenders to smooth consumption. While large landowners rely on gifts from kinship networks, landless and smallholders increase borrowings from informal sources.

Agrarian Distress and Indebtedness Among Rural Agricultural Households in Uttar Pradesh

Agriculture is the largest sector of the Indian economy in terms of population dependent on it, where more than 85% of farmers belong to small and marginal categories. In India, agriculture has made commendable progress after the Green Revolution, and with a spectacular rise, the country has become self-sufficient in the case of most of the farm products. Despite it, farmers continued to languish in poverty. As time passes, farming has become less remunerative for most of the farming community, which has led to increasing debt and overall distress. Along with this, the consistent crop failure, coupled with the high cost and vagaries of the market, have made life worse for them. According to the latest data released by ‘National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) on December 4, 2023, there were 11,290 suicide cases reported by farmers from across the country during 2022, with an increase of 3.7% from 2021. In India, more than half of farmers were in debt and as per NCRB data, there were 7034 farmers’ suicide cases due to indebtedness in 2022. Moreover, the state of Uttar Pradesh saw the highest increase in the number of suicides among all states, with a 42.13% rise when compared with 2021. In this context, the present paper examines agrarian distress and suicide among farmers in the country as well as in the state of Uttar Pradesh. The study, primarily based on secondary sources, tries to explore the underlying reasons for rural indebtedness or bankruptcies, whether it is natural, institutional, social, financial, or government policy-led. The paper also suggests some possible solutions, both short-term and medium-term, including coverage of all crops under Minimum Support Price (MSP); improvement of rural credit delivery system through institutional credit agencies; crop insurance coverage; and provision of input subsidies that can mitigate the agrarian distress among farmers.

Is Climate Change Posing a Challenge to Food Security? Empirical Evidence from a Small Island Developing Country

Food security remains one of the main goals for all countries worldwide. While several agencies have mobilized resources to achieve this goal, food insecurity remains a significant livelihood challenge in many developing countries. Therefore, in this paper, we examine some critical factors affecting the food security of rural agricultural households in Fiji using the latest Agricultural Census data. This study reveals that farmers’ access to fishing grounds and non-timber forest resources can improve farming households’ food security. The study also shows that while the government vigorously pursues a transition from subsistence agriculture towards commercial agriculture, improving market access and reducing transportation costs will significantly improve food security. Given the importance of regular cash income, the study also demonstrates that off-farm employment of household members, particularly larger-sized households, will substantially help to improve food security. Lastly, and most importantly, the government must quickly examine how it could mitigate challenges posed by climate change, as this could devastate food security via reduced food production.

Understanding changes in household carbon footprint during rapid urbanization in China

Amidst unprecedented urbanization, China's large-scale population migrated from rural to urban. The updated study on the change of household carbon footprints (HCF) of three groups is needed for understanding urban-rural disparities in the context of the hukou system. We calculated consumption-based HCF based on 22 indicators. Three main urban-rural groups were distinguished based on hukou status, to unravel urban-rural HCF differences. Findings showed that, average per capita HCF of urban non-agricultural households (UNAHs) was greatly higher, while that of urban agricultural households (UAHs) increased more rapidly. Thus, they should be key groups to mitigate HCFs. Notably, there were significant HCF disparities across consumption categories among different urban-rural groups. Electricity consumption, eating at home and car purchase were the largest contributors to HCF disparities. Thus, the carbon reduction potential of these categories was large. Moreover, both UAHs and rural agricultural households exhibited significantly higher within-group HCFs inequalities compared to UNAHs, highlighting the polarization effects. Narrowing HCF inequality necessitates reforming hukou system to assist UAHs in enjoying more basic urban benefits. The study hopes contribute to understanding urban-rural HCF change based on China's hukou system and to reduce HCF and its inequality during rapid urbanization.

Flood shocks and post-disaster recovery of households: An empirical analysis from rural Odisha, India

This paper uses primary household survey data collected after the severe flooding that occurred in the Bhadrak region of Odisha in 2014. We contribute to the literature by examining the factors that enhance rural households’ disaster recovery capacities. We distinguish two main recovery outcomes: an income (economic) recovery and a housing structure (structural) recovery outcome. A Generalized Ordered Logit Model (GOLM) is employed where the recovery is determined by socioeconomic characteristics and coping mechanisms available to the households. The findings reveal that rural agricultural households adopted several measures in response to the flood. Migratory labor-based strategies significantly increased the likelihood of economic recovery one year after the disaster. Selling productive assets reduced the likelihood of recovery. Community-level coping strategies were not effective, as floods caused devastating effects on a large part of the village community. Poorer households were more constrained in their capacities to recover from disaster shock. However, there was evidence of community-level support in terms of labor exchange between households in close neighborhoods. Finally, the study finds that post-disaster public assistance was mainly provided to land-owning farmers rather than poor, landless agricultural households.

Dissemination of climate smart agricultural knowledge through farmer field schools (FFS): analyzing the application CAS knowledge by smallholder farmers

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of climate smart agriculture knowledge transfers. As well as to examine the application of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) knowledge such as conservation agriculture, irrigation systems, integrated soil fertility management, bioenergy and agroforestry by smallholder farmers in Kenya.Design/methodology/approachThe study applied comparative research methodology to compare climate smart agriculture knowledge application between smallholder participants in farmer field schools (FFS) and no FFS participation. This study used household data from 759 randomly selected rural agricultural households in three counties in Kenya. The study applied multivariate probit model to estimate CSA knowledge application by farmers who participated in field trainings and non-FFS participation farmers.FindingsThis study established that climate smart agriculture knowledge transfer through FFS increases farmers’ application of critical aspects of climate smart agriculture knowledge practices such as irrigation system, conservation agriculture and soil and water conservation. Such aspects have been noted as effective interventions against adverse climate change effects such as persistent droughts and flooding and soil infertility. Further findings illustrated that farmers who received CSA knowledge transfers applied agricultural insurance to mitigate rising climatic risks on their farms. Knowledge transfer interventions targeting affordability through subsidizing agricultural insurance are probable and more cost-effective measures that can be used to reduce smallholder farmers’ exposure to climate change-related risks.Originality/valueThis study provides information that was previously unknown about climate smart agriculture knowledge transfers and application among farmers who participated in field trainings and non-FFS participation farmers by using empirical data.

Quantifying Vulnerability to Poverty in Rural Manipur: A Study of Agricultural Households from NSSO 70th Round Data

Poverty is a stochastic phenomenon as the economic status of a household can change in the face of shocks and in the absence of resources to mitigate the effect of shocks. Thus, a static measure of poverty may not be very reliable for policy formulation. This article attempts to analyse the level of vulnerability to poverty across rural agricultural households by using 3 stage feasible generalized least square (3S FGLS) method and examines the determinants of households’ vulnerability to poverty by logistic regression. In addition, a concerted effort is made to explore the similarities and differences between the determinants of vulnerability and those of poverty. The study used NSSO 70th round (2012–2013) Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households data. The analysis reveals most of the determinants of poverty and vulnerability to be similar although it differs in strength on the impacts and significance level. The FGLS estimates show that the vulnerability of household level is much higher at 50.07% as compared to poverty rate, which is at 43.52% in the study area. Education of the household head, diversification of economic activities and social safety nets are found to be very significant in reducing vulnerability of a household. The safety nets are found to be not significant in reducing poverty. Nonetheless, they are effective in anchoring the vulnerable households against falling into poverty in the study area.

Households’ Agribusiness Status and Food Security in Burkina Faso

Food insecurity remains a major challenge worldwide. The political discourse calls for increasing agricultural productivity through agribusiness as a key driver of food and nutrition security. This is because the dominant agricultural system, that is, small farms, appears inefficient. However, the policy definition of agribusiness may exclude actors who fit into rural households in low-income countries. This study contributes to the literature by comparing the relationship between agribusiness and non-agribusiness households and by focusing on how this affects their respective food security. It develops an analytical framework that helps decision makers redirect agribusiness policies by clearly considering rural households as potential agribusinesses. Using a dataset covering the entire rural area of Burkina Faso, this study adopts an endogenous sample selection method to define the agribusiness status of these rural agricultural households. An instrumental variable (IV) probit regression was used to analyse the determining factors of agribusiness status, as it addresses the problem of selection bias or endogeneity. A simple linear regression was then used through which a multidimensional food security index was regressed over agribusiness and non-agribusiness household characteristics. The study finds that in rural areas, the level of agricultural technologies adopted, the input cost, and the quantity of family labour used in farming are among the determining factors of a household’s agribusiness. Land size and the quantity of sales within a household are key determinants of the level of food security. As the level of food security in agribusiness households is (two times) high as in non-agribusiness households, this study recognises the relevance of targeting agribusiness as an enabler for achieving food security. This paper proposes that decision-makers extend their definition of agribusiness by including rural non-legally recognised agribusiness actors to increase fiscal income. This study is the first to address agribusiness and food security issues in Burkina Faso.

Determinants of indebtedness and institutional credit to rural agricultural households: an empirical evidence from South India

PurposeThis article attempts to understand the pattern of credit (loan) among agricultural households and identify the correlates of their access to institutional credit for policy imperatives. It also focuses on the inclusivity of institutional credit and debt pattern in terms of outstanding loan in the southern region of India.Design/methodology/approachThis study employs the Tobit model along with the Heckman selection model to study the impact of various factors on the institutional borrowing and the amount outstanding.FindingsThe findings reveal that the access to credit is strongly associated with the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of agricultural households in South India. Asset position of households and size of holding are positively related with the probability of household having access to institutional credit. Education and family size are also found to be associated with higher access to formal credit. On the other hand, the socially disadvantaged households have lower access to formal credit. Similarly, other variables – assets, holding size and education – are associated with higher credit per household.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings indicate that the strategies to develop agriculture in southern India must encompass efforts to bring the small and marginal farmers under the coverage of institutional credit.Originality/valueThere are very few studies that have explored the credit access in South India from the perspective of land class despite the government’s attempts to include small and marginal farmers in the ambit of formal financial services.

Determinants of Financial Inclusion of Rural Agricultural Households in India

Using nationally representative survey data from 21,648 rural agricultural households, the current study investigates the financial inclusion level among distinct social groups across the major Indian States. The results show that 18.49 per cent of rural agricultural households have no access to formal institutions. Rural agriculture households are more financially included from the banks (78.37 per cent) compared to the post offices (15.39 per cent). Findings further exhibit the low level of financial inclusion and prevailing inequality for financial access among socially disadvantaged groups. Open category agricultural households show a relatively high financial inclusion level compared to socially disadvantaged groups. A logistic regression model is applied to examine the factors influencing the degree of financial inclusion of rural agricultural households, which reveals some interesting facts. The level of financial inclusion from banks and post offices increases with education level, size of landholdings, age, and households belonging to the open category, among others. Further, the chances are high for financial inclusion of men, while the presence of post office increases the probability of financial inclusion of women.

MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS AS PREDICTORS FOR STUNTING IN RURAL AGRICULTURAL HOUSEHOLDS IN INDONESIA

This study aimed to analyze the associations of maternal characteristics and nutritional status of primary caregivers with the occurrence of stunting in children aged 6 – 59 months from rural agricultural households in Indonesia. This study used a sequential explanatory mixed method design. It started with a cross-sectional survey, followed by a qualitative study to explore community perceptions related to findings from the quantitative analysis. The survey involved 200 mother and child dyads. multiple logistic regression was carried out with the dependent variable being the incidence of stunting in children, and maternal characteristics as independent variables. Data analysis showed that WDDS and the maternal length of education in years were significant predictors for the incidence of stunting in children. The adjusted odds ratio (AOR) for WDDS was 0.78 (95% CI 0.63 - 0.98), while for the length of education of mothers was 1.22 (95% CI 1.01 - 1.48). We also conducted a qualitative study to explore food distribution and utilization within the household. Qualitative data analysis showed that, except for pregnant mothers, “good food” was prioritized the least for mothers. The persistent barriers for utilization of quality and diverse food are access to such food rather than knowledge of what is considered “good food for health”. Increasing access and consumption of diverse foods for all mothers beyond pregnancies is an important factor for preventing stunting in Indonesian children from rural agricultural households.

Usefulness of seed systems for reviving smallholder agriculture: a South African perspective

South Africa is considered a food-secure nation; however, food insecurity is still a major challenge for many poor rural households that rely on cash incomes and government grants for survival. Furthermore, these grants are not always adequate to meet households’ basic needs and fail to provide them with the food required for food and nutrition security. Some of these households rely on agriculture to supplement their food needs, and an important aspect of this agricultural production is the seed system. Smallholder farmers in rural areas rely on informal seed systems, and use traditional knowledge and methods to produce, harvest, store, and sell their produce. This research combined quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the role of informal seed systems in promoting food production in rural smallholder agricultural households in South Africa. The narrative review showed reword that while smallholder farmers acquire seed from informal seed systems, they face numerous challenges that affect their production activities. These challenges include poor seed quality and assessment, poor storage and harvesting facilities, which limit proper seed production and affect crop yield and marketing. Due to these challenges, the ability of rural smallholder farmers to access mainstream markets is limited and as a result, they are confined to local markets that offer lower prices. Moreover, South African policies do not recognize the informal seed system as one of the contributors to food security. This is a major limitation as farmers may not receive the support and assistance they require. Formal recognition and support for informal seed systems would go a long way in improving smallholder farmers’ access to quality seed. This would have ripple effects on their yields and productivity. When properly implemented and given recognition by the government, informal seed systems have the potential to contribute to rural food security and livelihoods.

Farm-Level Adaptation to Climate Change and Impacts on Household Food Security: Evidence from the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka

Climate change can have detrimental impacts on rural agricultural households. Farmers all over Sri Lanka are seen adopting numerous strategies to face the impacts of climate change. Climate change poses considerable challenges to all four dimensions of food security. Therefore, this study aims to explore climate related factors affecting the level of household food security of rural farmers. The study was conducted with 110 farmer families in the district of Anuradhapura. Data were collected through a structured questionnaire-based survey over a period of four months along with field observations. An ordered logistic regression was carried out in order to find out the influence of climate change adaptation and other related factors at farm-level on the household food security. Household food insecurity access scale was used to categorize the sample into different levels of food security. Results show that farmers who adopted climate change strategies are more food secure compared to those who did not adapt. Exposure to climate change and strong social networks also have a positive influence in leading these households to a higher level of food security. Certain socio-demographic factors such as the farmer's level of education and being a male-headed household were also positively associated with food security. The study therefore emphasizes the importance of stronger policies that can enhance farmer adaptation strategies through better accessibility to endowments such as alternative livelihoods, stronger social networks, awareness and better education for agricultural households.

Physical activity, time use, and food intakes of rural households in Ghana, India, and Nepal

With more than 820 million undernourished people living in rural areas of low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), ending hunger and ensuring access to food by all is a global priority. In the past few decades, the adoption of technological innovations in the agricultural sector and related crop yield improvements have not led to expected improvements in the nutritional status of rural households in many LMICs. The increased energy expenditure associated with the adoption of productivity-enhancing innovations may provide an important explanation of the disconnect between agricultural productivity enhancements and improved nutritional outcomes. We develop a methodology for generating reliable livelihood energy/calorie expenditure profiles for rural agricultural households using research-grade accelerometer devices. We integrate the data on physical activity and energy expenditure in rural households with data on time-use and food intakes to generate a data set that provides a unique window into rural livelihoods. This can be a valuable resource to analyse agriculture-nutrition impact pathways and improve the welfare of rural and agricultural households.

Micro- Finance and Poverty Alleviation of Rural Agricultural Households in the Hohoe Municipality, Ghana

Micro- Finance and Poverty Alleviation of Rural Agricultural Households in the Hohoe Municipality, Ghana

Biogas adoption and elucidating its impacts in India: Implications for policy

Indoor air pollution from the use of dirty fuel such as firewood, and dung cake for household chores is a serious health risk globally. Currently, 2.8 billion people in the world rely on dirty fuel for cooking and heating, of which more than 700 million (25%) people are from India. In 2016, 3.8 million premature deaths were attributable only to indoor air pollution, of which the total premature deaths due to indoor air pollution in India was 1.3 million (34%). One of the effective ways to combat indoor air pollution is a rapid dissemination of biogas technology. With nearly 300 million bovine animals, and 22% of rural agricultural households that completely rely on livestock for their livelihoods, India has a great potential to expand biogas technology and to combat the killer indoor air pollution. Currently, however, only 0.4% of the households in India reportedly use biogas. Using National Sample Survey Organization data, India, and applying an econometric estimation procedure, the present study demonstrates that both physical capital, such as landholdings and house ownership, and human capital, such as general education of the household head and spouse, can significantly affect the decision to use biogas. However, the positive decision to use biogas is negatively associated with the monthly expenditure on dirty fuel. The study, therefore, recommends the provision of general education as well as external supports in developing countries to increase awareness, as well as the adoption of domestic biogas digesters.

Impact of non-farm income on welfare in rural Bangladesh: Multilevel mixed-effects regression approach

This study uses a two-stage econometric framework based on multilevel mixed-effects linear regression model with nationally representative Household Income Expenditure Survey (HIES) data in 2010 to investigate the effects of non-farm income on asset ownership of rural Bangladeshi households. Result reveals that non-farm income has a significant positive effect on household’s asset ownership. This study also uses Horvitz-Thompson (HT) estimator of the Foster, Greer and Thorbecke (FGT) indices and Gini, Theil’s and Atkinson income inequality measures to examine the impact of non-farm income on poverty and income distribution. The poverty measures reveal that the inclusion of non-farm income reduces the level, depth and severity of poverty as well as poverty risk at division level and in rural Bangladesh. However, non-farm income increased income inequality among rural households. As the agriculture of Bangladesh is subsistence and semi-commercial in nature, it is essential to encourage non-farm income activities to accelerate well-being among rural agricultural households.

The Strength of Near and Distant Ties

This study uses longitudinal semi-structured interview data to understand the role of social capital in environmental migration. I investigate how rural agricultural households displaced by the Belo Monte Dam in the Brazilian Amazon used ties to family and close friends in both the origin and destination during the course of migration, from pre-migration planning through post-migration livelihood reconstruction. I discover that the majority of households made strategic use of strong ties, relying on local and translocal social capital to help them find and purchase new property. Also, numerous households migrated to the same destinations as other displaced households and/or to places where family and friends had already lived beforehand. Maintaining strong ties in the destination was a priority for many households, as it facilitated the process of rebuilding livelihoods by providing social, financial, and emotional support. This study sheds light on how households make use of social networks during environmental migration, which can in turn help us better understand how social ties may shape migration decisions, capabilities, and destination choices among those displaced due to future environmental change.

What Defines Livelihood Vulnerability in Rural Semi-Arid Areas? Evidence from Pakistan

Rural livelihoods in semi-arid Pakistan are increasingly exposed to climate impacts such as rising temperatures, erratic rainfalls and more intense and frequent climate-related extreme events. This is introducing new risks to the already vulnerable and marginalised societies that lack development and have high poverty rates. This study uses the IPCC Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) approach to analyse the determinants of household livelihood vulnerability defining vulnerability in terms of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. It also determines various adaptation responses that farmers apply and elucidates the reasons why some farmers choose not to adapt to climate change. It focuses on three semi-arid districts in Pakistan (Faisalabad, D.G. Khan and Mardan) and uses a sample of 150 rural agricultural households. As per the LVI scores, D.G. Khan is the most vulnerable district to climate change impacts, followed by Mardan and Faisalabad, respectively. Results show that (a lack of) adaptive capacity plays quite an important role in shaping households’ livelihood vulnerability for any given degree of exposure and sensitivity. Besides lower exposure and sensitivity to climate change, extremely low levels of adaptive capacity make Mardan more vulnerable to climate change compared to Faisalabad. The paper argues on people-centric development for rural areas through strengthening of agriculture sector as well as providing rural household opportunities for off-farm livelihoods.

Micro-Level Welfare Impacts of Agricultural Productivity: Evidence from Rural Malawi

This article analyses the micro-level welfare impacts of agricultural productivity using a two-wave nationally representative, panel data from rural Malawi. Welfare is measured by various dimensions of poverty and food insecurity; and agricultural productivity is measured by maize yield and value of crop output per hectare. The poverty measures included per capita consumption expenditure, relative deprivation in terms of per capita consumption expenditure, poverty gap and severity of poverty; and the measures of food insecurity included caloric intake and relative deprivation in terms of caloric intake. Depending on the measure of welfare, the impact of agricultural productivity was estimated with a household fixed effects estimator, a two-part estimator or a correlated-random effect ordered probit estimator. The results indicate that growth in agricultural productivity has the expected welfare-improving effect. In terms of economic magnitude, however, both the direct effect and economy-wide spillover effect (in the non-farm sector) of a percentage increase in agricultural productivity on the poverty and food security measures are small. Efforts to effectively improve the welfare of rural agricultural households should therefore go beyond merely increasing agricultural (land) productivity.