Ruminative Response Style Research Articles

A Test of the Integration of the Hopelessness and Response Styles Theories of Depression in Middle Adolescence

The current study examined several theories of depression in a sample of middle adolescents. At Time 1, 367 ninth graders completed measures assessing depressogenic inferential styles, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood, and depressive symptoms. Six weeks later, participants completed measures assessing negative events and depressive symptoms. In line with the hopelessness theory, a depressogenic weakest link interacted with negative events to predict increases in hopelessness depression symptoms but not in more general depressive symptoms. Further, providing partial support for the response styles theory, the tendency to ruminate in response to depressed mood predicted increases in hopelessness depression symptoms but not in more general depressive symptoms. Contrary to the integrative theory, the relationship between a depressogenic weakest link and increases in hopelessness depression symptoms following negative events was not moderated by a ruminative response style.

Moderating effects of perceived thought control ability on the relationship between ruminative response style and depression

The purpose of this study was to explore the moderating effects of perceived thought control on the relationship between rumination and depression. 417 undergraduate students enrolled in introductory psychology courses participated in this study. They were asked to complete the questionnaire about ruminative response style, thought control ability, and depression. The data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression. The results reveal ed that rumination and perceived thought control ability independently affected depression symptoms. In addition, perceived thought control ability significantly moderated the relationship between rumination and depression. Based on the results， the implications and the limitations of this study were discussed.

Temperament and Risk for Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: Mediation by Rumination and Moderation by Effortful Control

The present study examined the relations between temperament, ruminative response style and depressive symptoms both cross-sectionally and prospectively (1 year follow-up) in a community sample of 304 seventh- through tenth-graders. First, higher levels of negative affectivity (NA), lower levels of positive affectivity (PA) and lower levels of effortful control (EC) were found to be associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms. Second, the association between NA and PA on the one hand and depressive symptoms on the other was significantly moderated by level of EC (low PA and high NA are associated with depressive symptoms only if EC is low) and these relations were moderated by sex in the cross-sectional data. In the prospective data, T1 depressive symptoms and PA predicted T2 depressive symptoms; with EC approaching significance. Third, rumination also predicted T1 as well as T2 depressive symptoms. Finally, support was found for a model of moderated mediation: higher levels of NA were associated with higher levels of ruminative response style, which was in turn related to more depressive symptoms but only in individuals with low EC and this was true for the cross-sectional as well as the prospective data albeit with noteworthy differences in pattern. These findings confirm and extend previous findings on the associations between temperament, response styles and depression in adolescence and, as such, add to the growing body of research providing support for the applicability of cognitive vulnerability theories to depression in younger populations.

Relationship between filial piety, meta-cognitive beliefs about rumination and response style theory in depressed Chinese patients

The presentation of depression varies across cultures and the Chinese culture lays considerable emphasis on filial piety. We studied the relationship between filial piety and psychopathology in the Chinese population in Hong Kong. 172 patients of Chinese origin were interviewed using Beck Depression Inventory, response style questionnaire (RSQ) to measure ruminative response styles and filial piety scale. Of 172 individuals, 67 were males and 105 females and mean age was 38.9 years (S.D. 12.74). Severity of depressive symptoms was strongly correlated with ruminative response style. Filial piety and depressive symptoms were negatively correlated, as were filial piety and ruminative styles as well as meta-cognitive beliefs about rumination. This study supports the association between rumination and depression in a clinical sample from a Chinese population. Strong meta-cognitive beliefs about rumination are associated with more severe depressive symptoms, mediated by ruminative response style showing that Culture-specific beliefs are important in clinical assessment of depression.

Rumination and Depression in Adolescence: Investigating Symptom Specificity in a Multiwave Prospective Study

A ruminative response style has been shown to predict depressive symptoms among youth and adults, but it is unclear whether rumination is associated specifically with depression compared with co-occurring symptoms of anxiety and externalizing behaviors. This prospective, multiwave study investigated whether baseline rumination predicted prospective elevations in depressive symptoms specifically. Rumination was assessed at baseline in a sample of early and middle adolescents (N = 350, 6–10th graders). Symptom measures of depression, anxious arousal, general internalizing, and conduct/externalizing problems with good discriminant validity were assessed at four time points over a 5-month period. Results using hierarchical linear modeling show that rumination predicted prospective fluctuations in symptoms of depression and general internalizing problems specifically but not anxious arousal or externalizing problems. Rumination predicted increasing prospective trajectories of general internalizing symptoms. Baseline rumination interacted with prospective co-occurring fluctuations of anxious arousal and externalizing behaviors over time to predict the highest levels of prospective depressive symptoms. Rumination partly mediated the sex difference (girls > boys) in depressive and internalizing symptoms.

Adaptación al castellano de un instrumento para evaluar el estilo rumiativo

The Spanish version of the Ruminative Responses Scale (RRS, Ruminative Responses Scale) is pre-sented. This scale assesses the presence of ruminative response style, a pattern of response consist-ing in an excessive focus on causes and consequences of depressive symptoms. Ruminative style has been associated with a vulnerability to develop depressive and anxious symptoms. In this work the Spanish version of this scale is presented as well as data on its internal consistency, test-retest reliability, factorial validity, convergent validity and incremental validity. Factorial analysis detected two factors: reflection and brooding, thus replicating previous studies. Test-retest reliability was adequate and internal consistency was even higher than in the original scale. Finally, the Spanish version of the RRS significantly predicted levels of depressive and anxious symptoms, even after controlling for neu-roticism and extraversion.

Rumination and Vegetative Symptoms: A Test of the Dual Vulnerability Model of Seasonal Depression

The Dual Vulnerability Model of seasonal affective disorder proposes that the cognitive-affective symptoms of seasonal depression are the result of an interaction of a diathesis of cognitive vulnerability to depression and the stressor of seasonal vegetative change. Two studies examined this hypothesis employing a within-subject design with daily data on vegetative and cognitive-affective depressive symptoms. Study 1 included a subclinical sample and a trait measure of ruminative response style. Study 2 included a clinical sample and reports of actual ruminative thoughts and behaviors in response to fatigue. Results of mixed linear model analyses in both studies supported the hypothesis that rumination moderates the relationship between the vegetative symptoms and the cognitive-affective symptoms of seasonal depression. The extension of the model to other subtypes of depression is considered.

Treatment Interventions for Perfectionism—A Cognitive Perspective: Introduction to the Special Issue

The current article provides an overview of the papers included in this special issue and includes a discussion of key issues pertaining to psychological treatments for perfectionism. We describe and review two new treatment intervention studies in this special issue that focus on perfectionism in university students as well as other contemporary research on the use of cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat perfectionists. While the significant reductions in levels of perfectionism as a result of treatment are noteworthy, we caution that perfectionism is a relatively enduring trait; thus, some perfectionists will remain treatment resistant and overall levels of perfectionism may remain relatively high even when significant improvements are realized. Moreover, we discuss the established tendency for perfectionism to be associated with residual symptoms of distress following treatment. As part of our discussion of the other articles in this special issue, we highlight cognitive factors of likely significance in the treatment of perfectionism, including the ruminative response style, the tendency to experience perfectionistic automatic thoughts, and the role of core irrational beliefs in the development of perfectionism. These articles underscore the need to consider key cognitive factors that are central to dysfunctional forms of perfectionism.

The effects of cognitive-behavioural therapy on mood-related ruminative response style in depressed adolescents.

BackgroundA mood-related ruminative response style increases the risk of onset and persistence of depression. This preliminary study investigated whether, in depressed adolescents, cognitive-behaviour therapy reduces mood-related ruminative response style. Whether specific factors within the rumination scale were differentially affected by CBT is also reported.Methods26 depressed adolescents were randomised to receiving serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitor antidepressants (SSRI) plus psychosocial treatment as usual or SSRI and psychosocial treatment as usual plus CBT. Ruminative response style and depressive symptoms were measured at baseline and after 30 weeks of treatment, with the Responses to Depression Questionnaire and Mood and Feelings Questionnaire.ResultsThere were significantly greater reductions in ruminations in the CBT group compared to the non-CBT group (p = .002). There was no significant difference in the reduction in self-reported depressive symptoms between the groups. Rumination was reduced to levels of never-depressed controls in adolescents who had recovered from depression and received CBT. There were greater falls in the CBT group in the more pathological 'brooding' factor of rumination.ConclusionThese findings suggest that adding CBT to SSRI medication in the presence of active clinical care causes a greater reduction in mood-related ruminative response style in depressed adolescents. This may reduce the risk of future relapse.Trial registrationCurrent Controlled Trials ISRCNT83809224.

Post-event processing and autobiographical memory in social anxiety: The influence of negative feedback and rumination

Two experiments investigated the extent to which the content of feedback and the style of post-event processing are associated with a bias in the retrieval of autobiographical memories by individuals high in social anxiety. In each experiment high and low socially anxious individuals responded to questions about autobiographical experiences, participated in a task involving real or imagined social encounters, and then recalled autobiographical memories. In Experiment 1 (n=50) participants focused on positive or negative feedback following the social task, while in Experiment 2 (n=59) participants engaged in either a ruminative or reflective response style following the social task. Experiment 1 showed that negative feedback led to the recall of memories with a significantly greater average anxiety rating only in the high social anxiety group. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the high social anxiety group who engaged in a ruminative response style recalled memories with the highest average anxiety rating. Implications of these findings for understanding the role of post-event processing as a maintaining factor in social anxiety are discussed.

Cognitive inhibition in depression

Cognitive inhibition is a key mechanism in the regulation of emotion. There is emerging evidence that depression is characterized by deficits in the inhibition of mood-congruent material. These deficits could result in prolonged processing of negative, goal-irrelevant aspects of presented information thereby hindering recovery from negative mood and leading to the sustained negative affect that characterizes depressive episodes. Indeed, it has been suggested that deficits in cognitive inhibition lie at the heart of memory and attention biases in depression, and set the stage for ruminative responses to negative events and negative mood states. A ruminative response style results in a heightened vulnerability to experience episodes of major depression. Recent research has demonstrated that deficient inhibition of negative material is associated with heightened rumination. In this article, we review the depression literature with a focus on studies that investigate cognitive inhibition in depressed participants and in participants who report a history of major depressive episodes. In addition, we summarize neurobiological findings that indicate a strong relation between depression and deficits in inhibition and we take a closer look at the relation of inhibition, rumination and mood regulation.

A Model of the Relationship of Sex-Role Orientation to Social Problem-Solving

The study developed and empirically tested an integrated model that examined the relationships between sex-role orientations and the two conceptually related coping behaviors, namely, response styles and social problem-solving, using structural equation modeling. A total of 181 (129 females and 52 males) undergraduate students from a large public university in the northeast United States completed the Bem-Sex Role Inventory, the Response Style Questionnaire and the Rational Problem Solving scale of the Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised. Results showed that masculinity was related to social problem-solving. Sex-role orientations were not related to response styles. Both ruminative response style and distractive response style were positively related to rational problem-solving.

Perfectionism and psychological distress: evidence of the mediating effects of rumination

Three studies investigated the role of ruminative tendencies in mediating the effects of multidimensional perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) on psychological distress. Study 1 (Sample 1, N = 279; Sample 2, N = 224) and Study 2 (N = 205) found evidence, cross‐sectionally and prospectively, that brooding ruminative response style either fully or partially mediated the effects of socially prescribed and self‐oriented perfectionism on psychological distress, depression and hopelessness levels. In addition, Study 3 (N = 163) confirmed these mediation effects for socially prescribed perfectionism in relation to depression and hopelessness, 2 months later, after initial levels of distress were controlled. Overall, these findings provide evidence that brooding ruminative response style is an important mechanism that can explain, in part, the relationship between perfectionism and distress. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Ruminative Response Style in Adolescents: An Examination of Its Specific Link to Symptoms of Depression

This study further examined the relation between a ruminative response style and symptoms of depression in nonclinical adolescents aged 12–18 years (N = 231). Participants completed questionnaires that measure rumination, neuroticism, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Results indicated that rumination was significantly linked to symptoms of depression, and that this link remained significant when controlling for neuroticism. However, when concurrent anxiety symptoms were also taken into account, rumination was no longer significantly related to symptoms of depression. Interestingly, rumination appeared to be a significant correlate of anxiety symptoms, even after controlling for neuroticism and concurrent symptoms of depression. Support was found for a mediation model in which the link between neuroticism and depression and anxiety symptoms was partially mediated by rumination.

Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression in Seasonal Affective Disorder: Predicting Mood and Cognitive Symptoms in Individuals with Seasonal Vegetative Changes

Research indicates that seasonal fluctuations in vegetative functions (e.g., sleep, appetite, and energy) occur to varying degrees in the general population and a large fluctuation in vegetative functioning is often considered the core of seasonal affective disorder (SAD). The purpose of the present study was to determine if, among those with seasonal changes in vegetative functioning, a cognitive vulnerability to depression is associated with an increased risk for developing the cognitive and affective symptoms of SAD. Results indicate that participants with more dysfunctional attitudes, a more ruminative response style, and a more internal attributional style for negative events report experiencing more severe mood and cognitive symptoms of depression during the winter, controlling for the severity of vegetative symptoms. This was the case both for retrospective reports of typical symptoms and prospective reports of actual symptoms. These results provide support for Young’s dual vulnerability model, in which cognitive factors interact with environmentally mediated biological factors in the pathogenesis of full-symptom SAD, and suggest that cognitively-oriented interventions may be useful as adjunctive or alternative treatments for SAD.

Attention difficulties and mood‐related ruminative response style in adolescents with unipolar depression

Depressed adults may show impairment in switching attention from one task to another. Rumination on negative thoughts is associated with the onset and persistence of depressive episodes. It is unclear if such mood-related ruminations are specifically associated with slowed ability in switching attention from one task to another. Adolescents with current unipolar depression (n = 40) were compared with age and sex-matched controls (n = 38) on tests of attention and general cognitive abilities and completed the mood-related ruminative response style questionnaire. Compared to controls, depressed participants were significantly slower at switching attention. There was no association between attentional switching and mood-related ruminations and both processes contributed to the likelihood of being depressed. Findings were not accounted for by slowness in reading and speaking, the effects of antidepressants nor being more careful on tasks. Depressed adolescents demonstrate dual deficits in mood-related ruminative thinking and attention. Further studies are needed to investigate whether higher ruminations are associated with attention impairments in emotionally-valent attentional switching tasks, and whether both processes precede the emergence of clinical disorder.

Rumination and Excessive Reassurance-Seeking in Depression: A Cognitive–Interpersonal Integration

The purpose of this study was to conduct a preliminary investigation into the cross-sectional associations between depression, rumination, and excessive reassurance-seeking. Guided by conceptual linkages between these variables, ruminative response style was examined as both a potential moderator and as a potential mediator of the association between depressive symptoms and excessive reassurance-seeking in a sample of undergraduate students (N=244). Results from this investigation suggest that rumination mediates, but does not moderate, the association between depression and excessive reassurance-seeking. Findings are discussed within the context of integrating cognitive and interpersonal perspectives within the study of depression.

Ruminative Response Styles and Delay of Seeking Diagnosis for Breast Cancer Symptoms

Abstract Women with a ruminative style—a tendency to focus repetitively on the meaning, causes, and consequences of their distress—were hypothesized to delay seeking a diagnosis from a healthcare professional for a potentially dangerous breast symptom relative to women without a ruminative style. In Study 1, 147 female “ruminators” and “non–ruminators” read a vignette in which they imagined they had just discovered a change in their breast, completed measures of affect, and reported their intentions to seek care for this breast symptom. Ruminators were significantly less likely to intend to call the doctor immediately after finding an imaginary breast lump than were non–ruminators. In Study 2, 70 women breast cancer survivors recalled the dates related to their symptom finding and their affective responses to symptom finding. Ruminators delayed the presentation of their breast cancer symptoms to a healthcare professional 39 days longer than did non–ruminators. Furthermore, in both studies, the effects of ...

Rumination and interpersonal dependency: Explaining women's vulnerability to depression.

Abstract Women are twice as likely as men to suffer from a major depressive episode. Reasons for this gender difference in propensity for depression are not completely understood, although a number of explanations have been articulated. In this article we focus on two constructs that have been linked to gender differences in depression - ruminative cognitive style and interpersonal dependency. Ruminative cognitive style refers to the tendency to respond to depressed or dysphoric mood with repetitive thoughts and behaviours that focus attention on the meaning and consequences of the depressed mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). Interpersonal dependency reflects an investment in relationships and communion. We propose a theory of how these constructs interact to increase women's propensity to develop depression. Gender difference in rates of major depression is a consistent research finding, with women being about twice as likely to suffer from a major depressive episode as men (Kessler, McGonagle, Swartz, Blazer, & Nelson, 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990, 1995; Weissman & Klerman, 1977). This difference in rates of depression in women relative to men emerges in mid-puberty and remains throughout adulthood (Daley & Hammen, 2002; Daley, Hammen, & Rao, 2000; Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994). women are more vulnerable to depression than men is not completely understood, although various biological, social, and psychological explanations have been offered. Hormonal changes during puberty, childbearing years, and menopause, for example, are suspected to have some connection to increased depression in women (Denmark & Paludi, 1993; Formanek & Gurian, 1987; Seeman, 1997). Societal gender inequity and the oppression of women (e.g., poverty, lower social status, vulnerability to sexual and physical abuse) have also been linked to adverse mental health outcomes for women (Murphy, 2003). There are many plausible reasons and explanations as to why women are more vulnerable to depression than men, and no one explanation can reasonably account for this difference. In this article we explore and focus specifically on two constructs that have been linked to gender differences in depression - ruminative cognitive style and interpersonal dependency. We first review research outlining the relation between depression and ruminative cognitive style and between depression and interpersonal dependency. Although these topics have been reviewed previously, we contribute to this literature as we also propose a theory of how these constructs interact to produce a woman's increased propensity to develop depression. Theories of gender differences in depression have historically focused on individual variables without considering interactions between variables, and investigators have stressed the importance of examining integrated models (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). Ruminative Response Style Nolen-Hoeksema proposed that gender differences in depression could be accounted for by differences in the ways in which women and men respond to depressed or dysphoric mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987, 1991, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema & Jackson, 2001). Response Style Theory (RST) posits that women are more prone to ruminate in response to depressed or dysphoric mood than are men, whereas men are more prone to distraction in response to depressed or dysphoric mood than women (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999). Rumination can be defined as repetitive thoughts and behaviours that focus individuals' attention inwardly on the symptoms of their depressed mood as well as on the meaning and consequences of these symptoms. Examples of rumination include focusing on how depressed and unmotivated one feels (I feel so down that I have no energy or interest to do anything), wondering why one is feeling so down and depressed (What is wrong with me? Why do I feel so sad?), and worrying about the consequences of the symptoms of depression (Things will never work out for me). …

Examining the association between rumination, negative affectivity, and negative affect induced by a paced auditory serial addition task

The present study examined the relations among a depressive ruminative response style, a general propensity to experience negative affectivity, and negative affect induced by a paced serial auditory addition task (PASAT). Ninety nonclinical individuals completed a computerized version of the PASAT, which elicits a generalized negative affect response [Lejuez, C. W., Kahler, C. W., & Brown, R. A. (2003). A modified computer version of the paced auditory serial addition task (PASAT) as a laboratory-based stressor: Implications for behavioral assessment. Behavior Therapist, 26, 290–292]. As hypothesized, there was a moderate correlation between depressive rumination and a propensity to experience negative affect, as indexed both by a significant association with a negative affect personality factor and the prediction of negative affect elicited during the provocation. Findings also suggested that dispositional negative affectivity moderated the effects of a depressive ruminative response style on the valence but not arousal dimensions of emotional responding to the challenge. These findings are discussed in terms of improving our understanding of rumination and its potential role in emotional vulnerability processes.