Parasites Of Ruminants Research Articles

Epizootic situation on parasites of small ruminants under the conditions of the Vologda region

Epizootic situation on parasites of small ruminants under the conditions of the Vologda region

Use of tannin containing browse tree/shrubs in the control of intestinal parasites (helminthes) in small ruminants: review

The overall aim of this review was to evaluate the antihelminthics activity of browse forages containing secondary plant factors. Results from literature have shown the benefits of feeding browse foliage in terms of nutrient supply, supplementation supported animal growth and performance. It was found that supplementation with browse leaf meal reduced worm fecundity, also reduces the worm burdens and total fecal egg counts during feeding period. It is concluded that browse foliage can be used to reduce the adverse effects of intestinal parasite infections in ruminant, hence reducing the need for costly antihelminthics drugs and the development of resistance to these drugs.

Caribbean small ruminant importation requirements in an era of widespread anthelmintic resistance.

Resistance of small ruminant gastrointestinal parasites to available classes of anthelmintic drugs is a widespread problem. As such, use of these drugs needs to be applied in a judicious manner in order to protect animal health. Herein, a case of drug-resistant gastrointestinal nematodes imported to the Cayman Islands is outlined. In order to explore the potential for similar occurrences within the region, a survey was undertaken in March 2017 to assess the importation requirements for small ruminants to English-speaking Caribbean countries. The survey showed that universal administration of anthelmintics to small ruminants is a common pre-requisite for importation to the Caribbean region, though very few countries require any proof of drug efficacy. Such requirements are discordant with current recommendations for judicious anthelmintic use in domestic animal species and promote the continued development of anthelmintic resistance. While this survey focused on small ruminants, similar policies are often in place for the importation of a variety of animal species, including cattle, horses, and companion animals. Given that anthelmintic resistance is also recognized in parasite populations that impact these species, it may be time for the international community to revisit live animal importation requirements in the age of anthelmintic resistance. Some recommendations and considerations are put forward to help preserve animal health, animal welfare, and developing animal agricultural industries.

UDP-Glycosyltransferases and Albendazole Metabolism in the Juvenile Stages of Haemonchus contortus.

The nematode Haemonchus contortus, a gastrointestinal parasite of ruminants, can severely burden livestock production. Although anthelmintics are the mainstay in the treatment of haemonchosis, their efficacy diminishes due to drug-resistance development in H. contortus. An increased anthelmintics inactivation via biotransformation belongs to a significant drug-resistance mechanism in H. contortus. UDP-glycosyltransferases (UGTs) participate in the metabolic inactivation of anthelmintics and other xenobiotic substrates through their conjugation with activated sugar, which drives the elimination of the xenobiotics due to enhanced solubility. The UGTs family, in terms of the biotransformation of commonly used anthelmintics, has been well described in adults as a target stage. In contrast, the free-living juvenile stages of H. contortus have attracted less attention. The expression of UGTs considerably varies throughout the life cycle of the juvenile nematodes, suggesting their different roles. Furthermore, the constitutive expression in a susceptible strain with two resistant strains shows several resistance-related changes in UGTs expression, and the exposure of juvenile stages of H. contortus to albendazole (ABZ) and ABZ-sulfoxide (ABZSO; in sublethal concentrations) leads to the increased expression of several UGTs. The anthelmintic drug ABZ and its primary metabolite ABZSO biotransformation, tested in the juvenile stages, shows significant differences between susceptible and resistant strain. Moreover, higher amounts of glycosidated metabolites of ABZ are formed in the resistant strain. Our results show similarly, as in adults, the UGTs and glycosidations significant for resistance-related differences in ABZ biotransformation and warrant further investigation in their individual functions.

Occurrence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Small Ruminants in the Central Part of Myanmar.

Gastrointestinal parasite infection in small ruminants remains one of the major economic losses caused by reduced productivity. A total of 380 faecal samples were taken from 280 sheeps in Magway and Pwintbyu Townships and 100 goats in Natmauk Township, Myanmar. Faecal flotation and sedimentation methods were carried out to detect the presence of parasitic infections. Faecal egg and oocyst counts were carried out using the McMaster technique. The overall occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in small ruminants was 98.4% (374/380). The occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in sheep (99.3%) was higher than that in goats (96%). The highest occurrence was found in Eimeria spp. (96%), followed by Trichostrongyle (77.1%), Trichuris spp. (35%), and Moniezia expansa (14%). The mixed infection rate was 84.8% (317/374), while a single infection was 15.2% (57/374). The mean eggs per gram (EPG) and oocysts per gram (OPG) of faeces were ranged from 50 to 600 and 50 to 29,800, respectively. Among the 4 nucleotide sequences isolated, one sequence was 94.10-94.47% similarity with Trichostrongylus colubriformis, reported from Laos, and three sequences showed 96.64-99.46% identity with Haemonchus contortus from Laos, China, India, and Mongolia. As gastrointestinal parasite infection in small ruminants was relatively high in the study area, the development of appropriate treatment and control measures should be provided to reduce production losses.

Endemic occurrence of Fasciola hepatica in an alpine ecosystem, Pyrenees, Northeastern Spain.

Fasciola hepatica is a liver parasite of ruminants whose distribution is determined by its intermediate host, the freshwater snail Galba truncatula. In Europe, F.hepatica is mostly associated with lowlands. Infection from sympatric domestic reservoirs is rarely reported in wild mountain ungulates. This study explores F.hepatica in a multi-host system in a European alpine area. Serum samples (n=1,209) from Pyrenean chamois (Rupicapra p. pyrenaica), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and domestic cattle (Bos taurus) were collected in the National Game Reserve of Freser-Setcases (NGRFS) in Catalonia, Northeastern Spain, from 2008 to 2019, and tested for antibodies against F.hepatica. During the same period, the livers of 214 chamois hunted in the NGRFS were inspected for F.hepatica and associated pathological changes. Finally, 907 freshwater snails were collected in summer 2016 between 1559 and 2,224 metres above sea level (asl) in the NGRFS, and F.hepatica DNA sought by PCR. Antibodies against F.hepatica were detected in all four species, with a higher prevalence in cattle and sheep than in chamois. Fasciola hepatica and hepatic lesions were concurrently observed in 13/214 of the chamois livers inspected (6.1%, CI95 2.9%-9.3%). Fasciola hepatica DNA was detected in one out of the 907 snails (0.1%, Cl95 0.1% - 0.3%; Ct value 33.3) and collected at 2054m asl. Fasciola hepatica was consistently detected in a high mountain multi-host system, suggesting that its life cycle is completed and that it occurs endemically at the highest elevation reported in Europe. Transhumant livestock are the likely source in this alpine ecosystem, which according to rare occurrence of F.hepatica DNA in G.truncatula is still a suboptimal habitat for F.hepatica life cycle. Studying parasites at their highest distribution range can be useful to monitor climate change in seasonal mountain environments.

The use of high resolution melting analysis of ITS-1 for rapid differentiation of parasitic nematodes Haemonchus contortus and Ashworthius sidemi

Among gastrointestinal nematodes, haematophagous strongylids Haemonchus contortus and Ashworthius sidemi belong to the most pathogenic parasites of both domestic and wild ruminants. Correct identification of parasitic taxa is of crucial importance in many areas of parasite research, including monitoring of occurrence, epidemiological studies, or testing of effectiveness of therapy. In this study, we identified H. contortus and A. sidemi in a broad range of ruminant hosts that occur in the Czech Republic using morphological/morphometric and molecular approaches. As an advanced molecular method, we employed qPCR followed by High Resolution Melting analysis, specifically targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) sequence to distinguish the two nematode species. We demonstrate that High Resolution Melting curves allow for taxonomic affiliation, making it a convenient, rapid, and reliable identification tool.

Comparative H-gal-GP and H11 specific antibody binding in equine cyathostomins

The biological-based vaccine (Barbervax®) generates effective antibodies against the biologically essential H-gal-GP and H11 protein complex of the ruminant parasite Haemonchus contortus to target and kill the parasites after taking a blood meal. A comparative analysis of several parasite genera was performed to determine if a similar protein complex or one that is recognized by H-gal-GP and H11 specific antibodies was present. If so, it suggests the vaccine could be effective for other nematode parasites. Ancylostoma caninum, H. contortus, equine cyathostomins, bovine Bunostomum phlebotomum, Dracunculus lutrae, Parascaris sp., Ixodes scapularis, Amblyomma americanum, Dirofilaria immitis and Brugia malayi were evaluated for specific antibody binding using hyperimmunized antibodies against H-gal-GP and H11 native proteins. Of the parasites evaluated, specific and reproducible staining was observed in H. contortus and adult and encysted cyathostomins only. To further evaluate the similar reactivities between cyathostomins and H. contortus, cross-reactivity of equine serum with antibodies to cyathostomins on a H. contortus adult histology cross-section was observed using immunofluorescence. These findings pave the way for future studies on the safety and efficacy of H-gal-GP and H11 protein complex as a potential control for cyathostomins.

A Revised Checklist of Cooperia Nematodes (Trichostrogyloidea), Common Parasites of Wild and Domestic Ruminants.

SummaryThis review updates the current knowledge on the taxonomy of intestinal nematodes of the genus Cooperia parasitizing in wild and domestic ruminants. The emphasis is put on revision of 19 valid species belonging to the genus. This analysis focuses on main features of the genus Cooperia, including its geographic occurrence and the life cycle details. The most widespread congeners are Cooperia curticei, C. oncophora, C. pectinata, and C. punctata, having nearly worldwide distribution. The fifth species, referred by electronic databases from the European territory as Cooperia asamati Spiridonov, 1985, is unveiled here originally as nomen nudum.

Dry Season Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Ruminants in Sokoto Metropolis

This study was conducted with the aim of determining the dry season (January-May, 2018) prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in special breeds of ruminants in Sokoto Metropolis. A total of 100, 85 and 75 faecal samples were collected from Sudanese breed of Sheep, WAD/Sahel Goats and Friesian Cattle respectively. Faecal samples were examined using standard parasitological techniques (Simple flotation and Centrifugal sedimentation). For the Sheep, a total of 51 samples were positive for presence of gastrointestinal parasites. Male animals have higher prevalence (52.9%) than their female (47.1%) counterparts. The major parasites observed were Eimeria and Strongyles with prevalence of (64.71%), while the least observed parasites were mixed infections (35.29%). From the total of 85 goat faecal samples examined, an overall prevalence of 54.7% was observed. The prevalence rates for Strongyle, Eimeria and mixed infections were 57.5%, 34.0% and 8.5% respectively. The prevalence was more in males than in the females. Strongyleeggs were more, compared to other helminthes eggs. For the Friesian Cattle, sixty (60) samples out of 75 samples analyzed were positive for either Strongyleeggs or Eimeria (oocyst) infection or both (mixed) constituting about 80% prevalence. Forty-two (70%) samples were positive for Strongyle eggs, 14 (23.3%) for Eimeria oocyst and 4 (6.7%) for mixed infection of both. From the overall prevalence, female had a high prevalence of 34(56.7%) than male cattle 26(43.3%). Based on the results of the present findings, it was concluded that gastrointestinal parasitic infections also occur during the dry season in Sokoto which may be as a result of carry-over of infection during the succeeding rainy season.

Some larval morphological characteristics of Camelostrongylus mentulatus and Nematodirus spathiger

Monitoring of gastrointestinal nematode parasites in ruminants (domestic and wild) is often based on fecal examination techniques, looking for excreted eggs and larval forms using morphological keys. These, are more available in domestic ruminants, in which helminths are widely studied, than in wild ruminants. This study tried to provide certain morphological elements that will help to recognize the L3 larvae of Camelostrongylus mentulatus and Nematodirus spathiger that could parasite either domestic or wild ruminants. For that, we resorted first to the culture of L3 larvae from fecal samples taken from African antelopes, and second by the microscopic characterization of each isolated larval morphological pattern previously identified by sequencing of its internal transcribed spacer (ITS-2) regions of the ribosomal DNA. The results of different microscopic captured images showed that Camelostrongylus mentulatus larva is 16 intestinal cells that measuring approximately 820 µm length, ‎≈ 25 µm wide, and ‎≈ 47 µm for its sheath tail extension and by this be closer to Teladorsagia circumcincta characteristics. For Nematodirus spathiger, it possesses 8 gut cells and measuring about 1020 µm long, ‎≈ 25 µm wide, and‎ ≈ 143 µm for its sheath tail extension with specific tail appendages. Have done this, we were able to get some clarifications on the morphology of the studied larvae, and we believe thus that this study will contribute to the establishment of morphological identification keys especially for parasitic nematodes of wild ruminants.

A Whole Genome Re-Sequencing Based GWA Analysis Reveals Candidate Genes Associated with Ivermectin Resistance in Haemonchus contortus.

The most important and broad-spectrum drug used to control the parasitic worms to date is ivermectin (IVM). Resistance against IVM has emerged in parasites, and preserving its efficacy is now becoming a serious issue. The parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus (Rudolphi, 1803) is economically an important parasite of small ruminants across the globe, which has a successful track record in IVM resistance. There are growing evidences regarding the multigenic nature of IVM resistance, and although some genes have been proposed as candidates of IVM resistance using lower magnification of genome, the genetic basis of IVM resistance still remains poorly resolved. Using the full magnification of genome, we herein applied a population genomics approach to characterize genome-wide signatures of selection among pooled worms from two susceptible and six ivermectin-resistant isolates of H. contortus, and revealed candidate genes under selection in relation to IVM resistance. These candidates also included a previously known IVM-resistance-associated candidate gene HCON_00148840, glc-3. Finally, an RNA-interference-based functional validation assay revealed the HCON_00143950 as IVM-tolerance-associated gene in H. contortus. The possible role of this gene in IVM resistance could be detoxification of xenobiotic in phase I of xenobiotic metabolism. The results of this study further enhance our understanding on the IVM resistance and continue to provide further evidence in favor of multigenic nature of IVM resistance.

Immediate Interferon Gamma Induction Determines Murine Host Compatibility Differences between Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum.

Rodents are critical for the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii to the definitive feline host via predation, and this relationship has been extensively studied as a model for immune responses to parasites. Neospora caninum is a closely related coccidian parasite of ruminants and canines but is not naturally transmitted by rodents. We compared mouse innate immune responses to N. caninum and T. gondii and found marked differences in cytokine levels and parasite growth kinetics during the first 24 h postinfection (hpi). N. caninum-infected mice produced significantly higher levels of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) by as early as 4 hpi, but the level of IFN-γ was significantly lower or undetectable in T. gondii-infected mice during the first 24 hpi. "Immediate" IFN-γ and IL-12p40 production was not detected in MyD88-/- mice. However, unlike IL-12p40-/- and IFN-γ-/- mice, MyD88-/- mice survived N. caninum infections at the dose used in this study. Serial measures of parasite burden showed that MyD88-/- mice were more susceptible to N. caninum infections than wild-type (WT) mice, and control of parasite burdens correlated with a pulse of serum IFN-γ at 3 to 4 days postinfection in the absence of detectable IL-12. Immediate IFN-γ was partially dependent on the T. gondii mouse profilin receptor Toll-like receptor 11 (TLR11), but the ectopic expression of N. caninum profilin in T. gondii had no impact on early IFN-γ production or parasite proliferation. Our data indicate that T. gondii is capable of evading host detection during the first hours after infection, while N. caninum is not, and this is likely due to the early MyD88-dependent recognition of ligands other than profilin.

Anthelmintic Activity of Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.) and Mallow (Malva sylvestris L.) against Haemonchus contortus in Sheep.

Simple SummaryThe gastrointestinal parasitic nematode Haemonchus contortus of small ruminants is an important target for chemoprophylaxis. Repeated use of anthelmintics in the form of synthetic drugs increases the risk of residues in food products and the development of anthelmintic resistance. However, the use of combinations of dry traditional medicinal plants as nutraceuticals is an alternative to chemotherapeutics for controlling haemonchosis in ruminants. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with wormwood, mallow and their mix on parasitological status and inflammatory response in lambs experimentally infected with H. contortus. Simultaneously, the present study evaluated by the egg hatch test the in vitro anthelminthic effects of different concentrations (50–1.563 mg/mL) of the aqueous extracts of these plants. Our results revealed that the strong anthelmintic effect of both medicinal plants observed in vitro was not fully confirmed in vivo. This knowledge builds on our previously published findings and highlights that the effect of dry medicinal plants depends on the variety and synergy of plant polyphenols and the combination of bioactive compounds that together have an effect and contribute to a certain pharmacological efficacy.The objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of dry wormwood and mallow on the gastrointestinal parasite of small ruminants Haemonchus contortus. Twenty-four experimentally infected lambs were randomly divided into four groups of six animals each: unsupplemented lambs, lambs supplemented with wormwood, lambs supplemented with mallow and animals supplemented with a mix of both plants. Faecal samples from the lambs were collected on day 23, 29, 36, 43, 50, 57, 64 and 75 post-infection for quantification of the number of eggs per gram (EPG). The mix of both plants contained phenolic acids (10.7 g/kg DM) and flavonoids (5.51 g/kg DM). The nematode eggs were collected and in vitro egg hatch test was performed. The aqueous extracts of both plants exhibited strong ovicidal effect on H. contortus, with ED50 and ED99 values of 1.40 and 3.76 mg/mL and 2.17 and 5.89 mg/mL, respectively, in the in vitro tests. Despite the great individual differences between the treated lambs in eggs reduction, the mean EPG of the untreated and treated groups did not differ (p > 0.05). Our results indicate that using wormwood and mallow as dietary supplements do not have a sufficient effect on lambs infected with H. contortus.

Vulvar flap morphology of Haemonchus contortus in naturally infected slaughtered goats in Northern area of Bangladesh

Background: Haemonchus contortus is regarded as one of the most prevalent and highly pathogenic parasite of ruminants. Vulvar flap morphology of female Haemonchus worms is useful to understand the biology of this nematode. Traits of vulvar morphology are considered as markers of ecological adaptation. A study was carried out to determine the types of vulvar flap present in female Haemonchus worms in naturally infected slaughtered goats in Northern area of Bangladesh. Methods: Abomasa of 520 goats (260 from Rajshahi and 260 from Noagon District) collected from January, 2013 through December, 2013 from different slaughter houses of northern area of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. Female Haemonchus worms were collected under a dissecting microscope and then washed under tap water to remove adhered feed residues from their body. All Haemonchus worms from each animal were preserved in 70% ethanol inside individually labeled universal bottles, until they were examined for the types of their vulvar flap. The statistical package SPSS 19 for Windows was used for data analysis. Parameters such as major vulvar morphotypes of Haemonchus spp were compared by Chi-square test in both study areas. Results: The major vulvar morph types was knobbed like (46.1%) followed by linguiform (33.5%) and smooth (20.4%). Out of 260 adult female Haemonchus worms collected from goats of Rajshahi district, 43.0% linguiform, 21.1% smooth and 35.8% knobbed vulvar morphs were identified. In Noagon district, 23.8% linguiform, 19.6% smooth and 56.5% knobbed vulvar morphs were observed. Linguiform type vulvar morphs were predominant in Rajshahi whereas knobbed type in Noagon district. Statistically significant (P<0.001) fluctuation was observed among three major vulvar flap morph types in the study areas. Sub-linguiform B (LB) was most common (96.6%) compared to Sub-linguiform A (LA); 3.4% type vulvar flap. There were no Sub-linguiform C (LC) and Sub-linguiform D (LD) types vulvar flap of Haemonchus spp detected in the study area. Conclusions: The study showed polymorphism in vulvar morphology of female Haemonchus spp of goats in selected area of Bangladesh. The morphological characters of female Haemonchus spp can help in the identification of type of species that occurs in study area.

In Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Saponins from Medicago spp. Against Sheep Gastrointestinal Nematodes.

Gastrointestinal strongyle nematodes (GIS) are included among the most important parasites of small ruminants. The widespread drug resistance and drug residues in products of animal origin have increased the interest in the search for natural compounds with anthelmintic activity as a valid alternative to current synthetic drugs. The aim of the present investigation was to test the ‘in vitro’ anthelmintic activity of saponins and prosapogenins from different Medicago species, selected for their importance as a forage crop worldwide for animal feeding. From these plants, saponin mixtures were extracted, purified and used at scalar concentrations to evaluate their anthelmintic activities against sheep gastrointestinal strongyles (GISs), by the egg hatch test. Treated and untreated controls were used as the comparison. Data were statistically analyzed, and EC50 and EC90 were also calculated. All saponins and prosapogenins showed inhibiting effects on GIS eggs in a concentration-dependent manner. At higher concentrations, most of them showed an efficacy comparable to the reference drug (Thiabendazole 3 µg/mL) (P < 0.001). With 1.72 mg/mL EC50 and 3.84 mg/mL EC90, saponin from M. polymorpha cultivars Anglona was the most active. Obtained results encourage further studies aimed at evaluating the efficacy ‘in vivo’ of saponins which resulted as most effective ‘in vitro’ in this study.

Occurrence of tapeworms Moniezia benedeni (Moniez, 1879) in European bison Bison bonasus L. in Białowieża Primeval Forest

Tapeworms Moniezia benedeni are cosmopolitan parasites of wild and domestic ruminants. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of those tapeworms in European bison in Białowieża Primeval Forest. Parasitological necropsy of small intestine of 26 bison, aged from 3 months to 26 years was performed in years 2007–2011. Tapeworms M. benedeni were isolated from 11 examined animals and the prevalence of infection was estimated on 42.3%. Intensity of infection was ranging from 2 to 25 tapeworms and the mean intensity was estimated on 5.8 specimens. Prevalence in the group of calves reached 50% and in adult bison – 33.3%. Intensity of infection in calves was estimated on 2 to 5 tapeworms while in adult animals it was ranging from 1 to 2 parasites. High prevalence of tapeworms M. benedeni in European bison might result from poor condition or weak immunity of eliminated animals.

Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites and their Impact in Sheep in Riyom Local Government Area of Plateau State

This study examined the prevalence of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites of small ruminants with a focus on sheep in Riyom local government area of Plateau state, Nigeria. About two hundred (200) fecal samples were randomly collected from sheep from two (2) districts in the study location which are Jal and Riyom districts. From the 200 fecal samples analyzed using simple floatation and sedimentation techniques to examine for the presence of GI parasites; 87 were from rams and 113 from ewes, 100 were obtained from Jal and 100 from Riyom districts respectively. The data were statistically analyzed using Chi-square (x2) and p value ≤ 0.05 was considered significant. 128 samples were positive for gastrointestinal parasitic infections in the examined sheep, with an overall prevalence of 64%. The results showed eleven (11) species of GI parasites identified in the study area namely; Eimera spp. 73 (40.6%), Stronglyloide 16 (8.9%), Oesophasgustomum 35 (19.4%), Trichostrongylus 25 (13.9%),Fasciolaspp 11 (6.1%), Bunostomum spp. 5 (2.5%), Haemonchus spp. 9 (5%), paramphistomum 1 (0.5%), Neoascaris 1 (0.5%), Dicrocoelium 3 (1.7%), Avitellina spp 1 (0.5%). The level of eggs/oocyst per gram of feces between sexes group there showed no statistical significance (p=0.478) but a higher prevalence was found in ewes, 73 (64.6%) than the rams, 55 (63.2%). Also, adult sheep, 102 (66.7%) showed no significance (p=0.107) in prevalence when compared to young ones 26 (55.3%). The infection level was statistically significant (p=0.001) between the two (2) areas of study, Riyom district and Jal district, with values of 51.0% and 77.0% respectively.GI parasites are endemic among sheep in the study area, knowledge on these parasites and related epidemiological parameter is important for outlining fruitful control strategies against GI parasites.

Parasites of markhor, urial and Chiltan wild goat in Pakistan

Parasites are transferred between domestic and wild animals, when host animals come in contact with each other, particularly while grazing the same pastures, or when using same water bodies for drinking. Chances of parasite transmission and adaptation are high when hosts are genetically related. Afghan urial (Ovis vignei blanfordi), Suleiman markhor (Capra falconeri jerdoni) and Chiltan wild goat (C. aegagrus chialtanensis) are wild kin of domestic sheep and goats, sharing numerous parasitic diseases with each other. The present study was conducted in 2014–2015, to determine parasitic infections of Suleiman markhor and Afghan urial of Torghar Game Reserve, and the endemic wild goat of Chiltan National Park. For comparison, parasites of domestic small ruminants of these areas were also studied. A total of 11 species of helminth and 20 species of protozoa were recorded. Highly prevalent helminth among wild ruminants were Trichuris spp., Nematodirus spp., Protostrongylus rufescens and Moniezia benedeni, while highly prevalent Eimeria were E. arloingi and E. ninakohlyakimovae in caprines and E. ovinoidalis in urial. Chiltan wild goats were also found infected with Entamoeba spp. A short tabulated review of the helminth and protozoan parasites of wild sheep and goats of Pakistan, India, Iran and Turkey has been presented.

105 Integrated approach for controlling diseases and parasites in small ruminants: extension education and adoption

Abstract Small-ruminant production is important farm enterprise in Alabama and other states of the Southeast, especially for small and limited-resource farmers. Poor health of animals caused by various diseases and parasites, resulting in a low performance is a major problem faced by most farmers. There are various strategies that can be adopted to minimize the prevalence of diseases and parasites and improve animal health. However, the majority of farmers are lacking the needed knowledge to adopt such strategies. The objective of this program was to educate farmers and extension educators on the integrated approach for controlling diseases and parasites in small ruminants. The program was initiated in 2010 and has been continued with training sessions (n = 7) conducted at the state level. County-level based programming (n = 22) has also been delivered in the form of hands-on training sessions and field days. Moreover, educational materials in the form of workshop proceedings (n = 1) and handouts, flyers, and fact sheets (n = 11) were developed and disseminated to the target audience and public through different outlets (county extension offices, training sessions, field days, farm visits, emails, blog, social media, web pages). Because of this program, numerous small-ruminant farmers and extension professionals are being trained every year (n = 40–51/yr.), and many more have access to educational materials (n = 1,100–1,700/yr.). Short-term impact evaluation of the program shows that knowledge and skills of the trainees have increased significantly (21–62%; P &amp;lt; 0.05). Trainees rated the presented topics useful (94%), they were very likely to implement what they learned (96%), and mentioned that such implementation would improve their farm situation (88%). Several trained farmers were found adopting the integrated approach and educators training their clientele on using the integrated approach to minimize health problems in small ruminants.