Rugged Areas Research Articles

Implementing Parameterizations of Sub‐Pixel Terrain Long‐Wave Radiative Effect for FY‐4A/AGRI Infrared Data Assimilation Over Land Based on the Community Radiative Transfer Model

AbstractThe sub‐pixel terrain long‐wave radiative effect (STLRE) plays an important role in the satellite surface‐sensitive infrared brightness temperature (TB) simulation over rugged areas, however, it is absent in current radiative transfer models. This study incorporates a STLRE scheme in the Community Radiative Transfer Model (CRTM) for the FY‐4A/Advanced Geosynchronous Radiation Imager (AGRI). The total surface downwelling long‐wave radiance (SDLR) over rugged areas at sub‐pixel is composed of the radiance from the overlying atmosphere under plane‐parallel radiation condition and the radiance emitted from surrounding terrains, weighted by the sky view factor (SKV). Based on the homogenous assumption, a STLRE scheme is established through constructing terrain correction factors at AGRI pixel scale. The ExpCTL/ExpTOPO experiments with the CRTM adopting the plane‐parallel scheme/STLRE scheme are conducted to evaluate the simulations of AGRI clear‐sky TB over the rugged areas. Results show that considering the STLRE can significantly reduce the orography dependent simulation biases in the plane‐parallel scheme. The reductions of biases for the AGRI channel 11–13 regionally averaged over the rugged areas are 64.2%, 72.7% and 67.6%, respectively. Stable correction performance is found at different times of the day. Meanwhile, the corrections of SDLR are more obvious in winter than in summer, and in barren condition than in the other land cover types. This is theoretically attributed to the land‐air temperature difference and the land surface emissivity, respectively. This pilot study improves the observation operator for infrared TB data assimilation over complex terrain and exhibits broad promotion and application value.

Spatial structure of breeding settlements of the Snowy Owl (<i>Bubo scandiacus</i>, Strigiformes, Strigidae) in the tundra of the Taimyr Peninsula

Data on Snowy Owl breeding settlements and encounters in the tundra were analyzed for the periods of 1996–2007, 2012, 2014–2020 in the vicinities of the Medusa Bay (73°21ʹN, 80°32ʹE), northwestern Taimyr Peninsula, Siberia. Breeding Snowy Owls were detected in 1996, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2014, 2016 and 2019. The spatial distribution of nests, summarized for 9 breeding years, appear to be grouped (clustered). This means that the spatial population structure of Snowy Owls mostly consists of permanent breeding sites, or territorial cells. However, the distribution of these cells in the tundra area is uniform. The reasons for such an attraction to the same sites in the tundra that fail to differ from many others are not clear yet. The existing version of the “signal field” theory cannot account for this attraction: owls very rarely occupy previously used nest sites, definitely preferring new entire breeding places within these territorial cells. In fact the basis of so dividing the breeding area into permanent territorial cells and of choosing definite ones among them seems to indicate that birds are oriented to certain yet unknown features of the environment rather than only to the ecological characteristics of the habitat and/or to tracks from the previous bird activity. A summarized distribution of the Snowy Owl encounters of non-breeding birds was clustered, as well. The distribution of these clusters across the plain tundra (in rugged areas non-breeders occurred very rarely) appeared to be random. In different seasons, regardless of the breeding status, Snowy Owls may behave in very different ways: they may tend to pose closer to other owls or try to stay farther away; they may start breeding at very low lemming numbers or, vice versa, they do not breed in good nutritional conditions.

Impacts of hydroelectric stations on vegetation phenology in the Lancang River Basin

Hydropower projects can be critical in regulating ecological systems and managing water resources. The combined effects of natural conditions and human activities make the impact of hydropower on vegetation phenology much more complex. In this study, we selected four representative hydropower stations (Huangdeng (HD), Xiaowan (XW), Nuozhadu (NZD), and Jinghong (JH)) along the Lancang River to assess the effects of dams on vegetation phenology. The buffer zone analysis and Geodetector methods were used to evaluate the spatiotemporal variations of vegetation phenology and to analyze the possible causes of vegetation phenology. This study found that: (1) Throughout the study area, the relative contributions of factors affecting the start of the growing season (SOS) were ranked as air temperature (50.46 %), elevation (50.16 %), precipitation (49.90 %), and human activities (34.45 %). (2) The SOS of the rugged areas (HD) had been significantly delayed since water storage. The disparities of vegetation phenology in different areas had been identified by introducing the Core Impact Zone (CIZ) and the Peripheral Impact Zone (PIZ). Within the CIZ, the most pronounced delay was observed in grasslands (+6.57 days/yr). The delay days in the PIZ was 2.68 days/yr, which revealed that the effect of water storage diminished with increasing distance from the water source. (3) Human activities significantly influenced the vegetation phenology around the economically developed region (JH). This research provided new insights into the impact of hydropower development on vegetation phenology in river basins.

Resource selection of den sites for bobcats (Lynx rufus) in the Northern Great Plains, United States

Abstract Dens play a crucial role in the survival of young and can ultimately affect population dynamics for felid carnivores. However, little is known about Bobcat (Lynx rufus) den site selection. Therefore, this study aimed to identify environmental correlates of Bobcat den sites in the Black Hills, South Dakota, United States. Our objectives for this study were to compare environmental characteristics of Bobcat dens to random sites at coarse (3.14 ha) and local (0.05 ha) spatial scales. Female bobcats were radio-collared (n = 35) and dens (n = 27) were located using ground telemetry. Bobcats selected for high horizontal cover and terrain ruggedness at the coarse scale, as well as high horizontal cover at the local scale, which could provide concealment from predators. In less rugged areas land management practices that promote increased tree and shrub habitat as horizontal cover may provide habitat for Bobcat dens and ensure the survival of this ecologically and culturally important species.

Analysis of Different Height Correction Models for Tropospheric Delay Grid Products over the Yunnan Mountains

Accurate tropospheric delays are of great importance for both Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)-based positioning and precipitable water vapor monitoring. The gridded tropospheric delay products, including zenith hydrostatic delays (ZHD) and zenith wet delays (ZWD), are the most ideal method for accessing accurate tropospheric delays. The vertical adjustment method is critical for implementing the gridded tropospheric products. In this work, we consider the different models used for grid products and assess their performance over Yunnan mountains with complex topography. We summarize the main results as follows: (1) The products can provide accurate ZHD with mean biases of −2.6 mm and mean Standard Deviation (STD) of 1.5 mm while the ZWD results from grid products show a performance with biases of −0.4 mm and STD of 1.3 cm over the Yunnan area. (2) The Tv-based model shows a better performance than the T0-based model and IGPZWD in rugged areas with large height differences. The grid products can provide hourly ZHD with biases of 3 mm and wet delay with mean biases of within 2 cm and mean STD of below 3 cm in the Yunnan mountains, which exhibit a large height difference of around 1.5 km. (3) The radiosondes results confirm that the Tv-based model has an obvious advantage in calculating ZHD height corrections for differences within 2 km while the T0-model suffers from a loss in accuracy in the case of large height differences. If the site is located more than 1 km below the reference height, the IGPZWD model can provide a better ZWD with a mean bias of 1.5 cm and a mean STD of 1.7 cm. With vertical reduction models, the grid products can provide accurate ZHD and ZWD in real time, even if in complex area.

Revealing functional responses in habitat selection of rocky features and rugged terrain by Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) using LiDAR data

ContextMany carnivores are attracted to rugged terrain, rocky areas, and conspicuous relief features. However, most of the previous research is limited to general topographical habitat characteristics and rarely consider the effects of microhabitat characteristics.ObjectivesWe used the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) as a model species to investigate the effects of microhabitat characteristics and human infrastructure on habitat selection. We also tested whether there is evidence for a functional response in habitat selection across a large gradient of habitat availability.MethodsWe developed a new approach for detecting rocky outcrops from airborne LiDAR data. In combination with other remote sensing techniques and GPS-telemetry data, we assessed lynx habitat selection and functional responses across two geologically contrasting areas in Europe.ResultsWe detected > 1 million rocky outcrops and confirmed their strong selection by lynx. Lynx also selected steep, rugged, and rocky areas, especially for day-resting sites. Furthermore, lynx avoided paths during the day but selected them and other linear anthropogenic infrastructure during the night, indicating the behaviour-specific impact of human infrastructure. We also observed a functional response in the selection of rocky and rugged areas, as lynx’ selection of such habitats increased with their lower availability. This highlights the importance of preserving such terrains, especially when they are rare in a landscape.ConclusionsOur results highlight the importance of incorporating remote sensing techniques and data on microhabitat features in animal habitat selection research. We also recommend caution when developing new infrastructure for human recreation or promoting its use near geomorphological features and in rugged terrain.

Offline Correction of CMIP6 HighResMIP Simulated Surface Solar Irradiance With 3D Sub‐Grid Terrain Radiative Effects

AbstractThe surface solar irradiance (SSI) is crucial for the land‐atmosphere processes and remarkably affected by the topography over the rugged areas. However, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) HighResMIP models adopting the parallel‐plane radiative scheme without considering the sub‐grid terrain solar radiative effects (3DSTSRE) overestimate the SSI in the rugged areas and the overestimation increases with the sub‐grid terrain complexity. To reduce the biases of the SSI simulations, this study offline corrects the SSI simulations of CMIP6 HighResMIP models by a 3DSTSRE scheme. Results show that the SSI biases produced by the HighResMIP models in the rugged regions can be significantly reduced by adopting the 3DSTSRE offline correction, and the improvements increase with the sub‐grid terrain complexity, indicating that considering the 3DSTSRE in the climate models to improve the SSI simulations over rugged areas is necessary.

Large-scale overlap and fine-scale avoidance: assessing interactions between coyotes, bobcats, and cougars at multiple scales

Abstract In multi-carnivore systems individuals must forage and reproduce while also competing with other carnivores and avoiding intraguild predation. These interactions may vary by strength and scales across different ecosystems. We used occupancy analyses and attraction–avoidance indices to assess large- and fine-scale interactions, respectively, between Cougars (Puma concolor), Bobcats (Lynx rufus), and Coyotes (Canis latrans) in northeast Oregon based on data from camera traps set during the summer and fall of 2016 and 2017. To determine the importance of habitat preferences and spatial overlap, we compared occupancy (probability of use) models that included habitat covariates with and without species co-occurrence terms. Detection was different for all species and was influenced by roads, game trails, and canopy cover. Terrain ruggedness was important for all species; Bobcats showed the strongest preference for ruggedness, Cougars showed a weak preference, and Coyotes significantly but weakly avoided rugged areas. The top probability of use model showed that Bobcats and Coyotes were 1.88 times more likely to spatially overlap on roads. We also found evidence that interactions among carnivores were scale-dependent. At larger scales, habitat preference was more important than interactions with other carnivores, whereas at finer scales, most carnivores avoided each other. At fine spatiotemporal scales, our attraction–avoidance analyses showed that Bobcats avoided Coyotes and Coyotes avoided both Bobcats and Cougars. These findings suggest that carnivores in our study system were adept at minimizing conflict through fine-scale avoidance in space and time, that the human footprint can influence carnivore interactions, and that studying carnivore interactions at multiple scales is important for understanding the effects of spatial overlap and potential competition.

Ground‐dwelling mammal and bird diversity in the southern Annamites: Exploring complex habitat associations and the ghost of past hunting pressure

AbstractThe Langbian Plateau, a biodiversity hotspot in the southern Annamites of Viet Nam, has undergone extensive hunting pressure. However, the limited information on the effects of overexploitation on the current status and community composition of wildlife hinders effective conservation efforts, including the implementation of targeted patrols to reduce snaring. In this study, we conducted a camera‐trapping survey across the Langbian Plateau, consisting of a broadleaf evergreen and coniferous habitat mosaic. We recorded 46 ground‐dwelling mammals and birds, including several threatened Annamite endemics. Using multi‐species Royle‐Nichols model and landscape covariates, we found higher richness in broadleaf evergreen forest located in more remote and less rugged areas. We then used species responses to covariates to predict species distribution and identify high‐priority areas for conservation. Furthermore, we constructed diversity profiles that indicated higher biodiversity in broadleaf evergreen forest compared to the coniferous forest. Finally, we used a dissimilarity index to assess the level of defaunation, revealing 16% of the community had been lost, with higher levels of defaunation for threatened and larger‐sized species. Our findings provide insights into the status, distribution, and occurrence of the ground‐dwelling mammal and bird communities in the Langbian Plateau, and can help stakeholders design more effective conservation strategies to protect existing populations.

Geotechnical Practice of Construction on Unstable Slopes

The construction of facilities for various purposes in rugged areas in cramped urban conditions for builders is the main problem associated with solving geotechnical tasks of providing both the slope itself and buildings and structures of the surrounding development in the zone of geotechnical influence. Questions arise regarding the need to develop buried retaining structures. The article considers a case from the geotechnical practice of installing retaining structures using bored piles with diameters of 600 mm and 800 mm and ground anchors arranged using electric discharge technology (ERT anchors).

Construction of a Clear‐Sky Three Dimensional Sub‐Grid Terrain Long‐Wave Radiative Effect Parameterization Scheme Under Isotropic Assumption

AbstractRugged topography considerably regulates the surface downwelling long‐wave radiation (SDLR) flux and further affects the surface radiation and energy balances. The three dimensional sub‐grid terrain long‐wave radiative effect (3DSTLRE) is absent in most current numerical models, which usually adopt plane‐parallel schemes to simulate the SDLR flux. This study has developed a clear‐sky 3DSTLRE parameterization scheme based on the isotropic assumption of SDLR at rugged terrains and systematically evaluated its ability over the Tibetan Plateau (TP). Results show that the 3DSTLRE scheme achieves good and stable performance regardless of the horizontal resolution, time of the year, and sub‐grid terrain complexity. At different model horizontal resolutions ranging from 0.025° to 0.8°, the normalized mean absolute errors (NMAE) of the daily SDLR flux simulated by the clear‐sky 3DSTLRE scheme over most of TP are less than 0.9%, and the NMAE of the daily SDLR flux produced by the clear‐sky 3DSTLRE scheme regionally averaged over the grids with different sub‐grid terrain complexity are less than 0.25% in different months. Neglecting the 3DSTLRE in the plane‐parallel schemes may lead to clearly underestimated SDLR flux over the rugged areas, and the underestimation increases with the horizontal resolution and sub‐grid terrain complexity. At different model horizontal resolutions, the mean underestimation of the clear‐sky daily SDLR flux simulated by the plane‐parallel scheme over most of TP ranges from 5 to 20 W · m−2 with a relative underestimation of 4∼10%. The 3DSTLRE scheme can clearly reduce the biases of plane‐parallel scheme and exhibits wide application prospects in various numerical models.

Multi-Disaster Hazard Analysis, The Case of Elazığ Province

In this study, a comprehensive assessment of disaster hazards in Elazığ province, where the Eastern Anatolian Fault Zone passes through, was conducted. Hazard maps for earthquakes, floods, landslides, rockfalls, avalanches, desertification, and erosion were integrated to create a multi-hazard map. Various methods, such as the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and machine learning models, including the Random Forest algorithm, were employed to assess the severity and probability of exposure for each hazard type. Independent variables, including VS30, liquefaction potential, Digital Elevation Model (DEM)-derived data, and climatic data, were selected based on relevant literature and the study area. For earthquake and erosion hazards, intuitive models were used due to the absence of a single dependent variable. The desertification map was obtained from the Ministry of Environment, Urban Planning, and Climate Change. The Random Forest model was used for other disaster hazard maps. All hazard maps were combined using a hierarchical approach with the Weighted Overlay tool. The study generated a spatial synthesis and database intended to offer proactive insights into disaster preparedness, optimizing resource allocation, and expediting recovery efforts post-disaster within the Elazığ Province. Its primary objective is to provide assistance to local authorities and emergency response teams. In the province, a significant portion of urban settlements and the majority of rural areas face high earthquake hazards. Floods pose a considerable risk, particularly in low-lying areas downstream of numerous dams scattered across the province, as well as at the confluence points of seasonal riverbeds. The hazard of landslides is high in the rugged areas along the EAF and in steep terrains eroded by rivers. Moreover, rock falls occur more frequently in mountainous areas along the Hazarbaba-Akdağ axis due to erosion and physical dissolution. Erosion and desertification represent significant slow-moving hazards, with erosion intensifying on steep slopes and barren lands, while desertification notably affects Baskil and its surrounding low-lying areas in the western part of the province. Considering multiple hazards, areas with concentrated settlements and economic activities such as Elazığ, Baskil, Kovancılar, Karakoçan, and Behrimaz plains are categorized as very high and high-risk zones.

Characterising ecological resource utilization by the endangered Egyptian vulture in Oman to better manage and mitigate electrocution risk

Electrocution is a threat to birds and can undermine their conservation status. We tracked 15 globally endangered Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus) in Oman and used Resource Selection Functions (RSFs) to identify habitats important to vultures and locate places where electrocution risk is high. During daytime vultures selected rugged areas with low vegetative cover, and habitats near roads, waste disposal sites, and both high (>50 kV, large pylons) and medium voltage electricity infrastructure. At night vultures also selected rugged habitats with scarce vegetation. At night high voltage infrastructure was selected, especially in areas of relatively low ruggedness at higher elevations; medium voltage infrastructure was avoided at night. The pattern of infrastructure use suggested that vultures were using large pylons for night-time roosting, but used both large pylons and smaller poles for perching during the day. 54.2 % of 11–33 kV powerlines in the study area were within the top six habitat suitability categories, which also contained 87.3 % of 34,778 vulture daytime test locations. Retrofitting powerlines overlapping the highest suitability zones would have the largest immediate impact. Areas surrounding landfills were also important: 10.34 % of all test locations were located within 2 km of landfills, which contained only 14.5 km of 11–33 kV lines. Targeting these areas would provide high impact at low cost. These maps are particularly useful in Oman because it is a stronghold for resident endangered large birds (i.e., Egyptian vulture, lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos) and an important winter destination for endangered steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis).

Impact of Sub‐Grid Turbulent Orographic Form Drag on the Summer Monsoon Precipitation Simulation Over China

AbstractTerrain has multi‐scale dynamic impacts on the climate. The Regional Climate Model version 4 (RegCM4) has simulation uncertainty partly due to insufficient description of sub‐grid orographic drag (SOD). In this study, the sub‐grid turbulent orographic form drag (TOFD) scheme has been adopted into the RegCM4 to better describe SOD. Results show that the overestimated near surface wind over rugged areas leads to non‐negligible biases of the summer monsoon precipitation simulation over China in the original RegCM4, whose skill in simulating the summer precipitation over the monsoonal regions of China can be remarkably improved by adopting the sub‐grid TOFD scheme. Compared to the original RegCM4, the Taylor scores (root mean square error) of the precipitation simulated by the RegCM4 with the sub‐grid TOFD scheme are increased (decreased) by 4%, 13%, 11%, and 7% (8%, 5%, 30%, and 16%) over the southeastern China, the mid‐lower Yangtze River Basin, the Huang‐Huai Basin, and the northeastern China, respectively. The improved precipitation simulation mainly comes from the atmospheric circulation simulation improved by adopting the sub‐grid TOFD scheme, which leads to cyclonic (anti‐cyclonic) wind differences over the southeastern (northeastern) China from the boundary layer to the mid‐troposphere and thereafter vertical motion differences in the middle troposphere, further resulting in the variation of the simulated precipitation intensity (heavy to torrential) and the convective precipitation and consequential improvement of summer monsoon precipitation simulation. This study indicates that the dynamic impact of micro‐scale terrain plays an important role in the summer monsoon precipitation simulation.

Transportation infrastructure development and subjective socio-economic status: A quasi-experiment in establishing rural bus stations in China

Infrastructure construction has significant economic benefits for rural residents, but little literature discusses the impact on their psychological benefits. Setting the establishment of bus stations in rural China as a quasi-natural experiment and based on the 2014–2016 China Labor-Force Dynamic Survey, this study uses the difference-in-differences model to examine the effect of bus stations on the subjective socio-economic status (SES) of rural residents. The results show that the SES of rural residents has significantly improved after establishing bus stations. In addition, the establishment of bus stations has raised the wages and operating income of rural residents, as well as medical and educational expenses. Thus, rural bus stations contribute to the accumulation of physical and human capital, thereby increasing SES. In terms of reducing information asymmetry, the construction of the bus station has a stronger promotion effect for groups with low education status and income levels. In terms of promoting factor mobility, construction is more helpful in promoting physical health and residents living in rugged areas. These findings contribute to the literature on social class in rural areas by clarifying the psychological mechanism of infrastructure construction's effect on SES.

Preserving large tracts of natural grassland promotes mammal species richness and occurrence in afforested areas

The global loss of biodiversity paired with the shortcomings of protected areas highlights the need to improve the conservation potential of human-modified lands. Although often referred to as “ecological deserts”, large spatial scales and long rotation periods make tree plantations a relatively stable and permeable environment that could provide an important link between fragmented natural habitats. Different intensities of afforestation within the same geographic grassland region provide an opportunity to test how transformation by commercial plantations affects local biodiversity. We conducted camera trap surveys at two sites characterised by different degrees of afforestation. We demonstrate a higher mammalian diversity and a higher probability of habitat use in less transformed areas, suggesting that preserving large tracts of native vegetation is vital when offsetting biodiversity loss from timber plantations, especially regarding grassland-specialist species. Community-level habitat use increased in more rugged areas, while in the highly transformed site, habitat use increased closer to indigenous patches and roads. Our research highlights the importance of maintaining comprehensive networks of protected units as part of a broader landscape management approach and identifies a major challenge for the forestry industry moving forward, with plantation stands being dominated by species that threaten the long-term sustainability of the crop itself.

Spatial Distribution Analysis of Landslide Deformations and Land-Use Changes in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area by Using Interferometric and Polarimetric SAR

Landslides are geological events that frequently cause major disasters. Research on landslides is essential, but current studies mostly use historical landslide data and do not reflect dynamic, real-time research results. In this study, landslide deformations and land-use changes were used to analyze the landslide distribution in Fengjie County and Wushan County in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area (TGRA) by using interferometric and polarimetric SAR. In this study, the mean annual rate of landslide deformations was obtained using the small baseline subset interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SBAS-InSAR) for the ALOS-2 (2014–2019) data. Land-use changes were based on the 2007 and 2017 land-use results from dual-polarization ALOS-1 and ALOS-2 data, respectively. To address the problem of classification accuracy reduction caused by geometric distortion in mountainous areas, we first used texture maps and pseudocolor maps synthesized with dual-polarization intensity maps to perform classification with random forest (RF), and then we used coherence and slope maps to run the K-Means algorithm (KMA). We named this the secondary classification method. It is an improvement on the single classification method, exhibiting a 94% classification accuracy, especially in rugged areas. Combined with land-use changes, GIS spatial analysis was used to analyze the spatial distribution of landslides, and it was found that the landslide rate was significantly correlated with the type after change, with a correlation coefficient of 0.7. In addition, land-use types associated with human activities, such as cultivated vegetation, were more likely to cause landslide deformation, which can be used to guide local land-use planning.

Improving the Accuracy of Seafloor Topography Inversion Based on a Variable Density and Topography Constraint Combined Modification Method

The use of satellite altimetry to recover marine gravity anomalies allows for the rapid acquisition of seafloor topography on a wide range of regional scales. Currently, the commonly used approaches for inverting seafloor topography have been focused on the linear correlation between gravity anomalies and seafloor topography and have disregarded the effect of density contrast between the crust and seawater on depth. Therefore, we proposed a variable density and topography constraint combined modification (VDTCCM) method by deriving Parker’s formula and the Bouguer plate formula by introducing variable density and topography factors. This method can effectively recover topography-related nonlinear terms of gravity anomalies. Subsequently, the seafloor topography of the South China Sea was estimated by applying the VDTCCM method and was defined as Seafloor topography one (ST1), and following, the accuracy was evaluated using shipborne sounding data (SSD). The results indicate that the ST1 model’s SSD-checked accuracy is 23.34% and 39.42% higher than the common international models of ETOPO1 and DTU10, respectively. Moreover, the ST1 model has advantages in mapping rugged areas, showing more detailed topographical features. Consequently, the VDTCCM method can provide beneficial references for the construction of seafloor topography models on a large regional scale using gravity anomalies recovered from satellite altimetry.

Access to Piped Water and Off-Farm Work Participation: Evidence from Rural China

The lack of access to water services for a considerable share of the world population has been challenging the international community for decades. Billions of hours are spent each year on water collection in developing countries. Access to piped water can liberate individuals from the task of collecting water. Based on data from the China Labor-force Dynamic Survey (CLDS), this paper examines the impact of access to piped water on off-farm work participation. We find that access to piped water significantly improves off-farm work participation in rural China. This result remains robust when we use the PSM approach, Lewbel IV method, placebo test, and Dose-Response Model. Anyway, we find that the positive effect of access to piped water on off-farm work participation is greater in rugged areas and women, reflecting the role of access to piped water in promoting inclusive growth. Further research shows that access to piped water increases household income, and off-farm work participation mediates, in part, the link between access to piped water and household income.

A Uniform Model for Correcting Shortwave Downward Radiation Over Rugged Terrain at Various Scales

Shortwave downward radiation (SWDR) plays a major role in the material and energy balance of the Earth’s climate system. However, most of existing SWDR research and products assume that the surface is flat, ignoring the effect of topography. This approach introduces significant uncertainties in the calculated fluxes and smooths the spatial distribution of SWDR. This paper proposes a uniform shortwave topographic radiation model (USWTRM) based on the principle of energy conservation. To evaluate the USWTRM, we compared it with the large-scale remote sensing data and image simulation framework (LESS). The USWTRM performed better than the traditional method in most conditions. For clear-sky, when the SZA=0°, the relative root-mean-square error (rRMSE), relative bias (rbias), and R <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> of the USWTRM at 1-km were 0.1 %, 0.0 %, and 1.000, respectively. At SZAs of 20°, 40°, and 60°, the USWTRM also showed better results than the traditional method. Moreover, the USWTRM performed similarly at 3-km and 5-km as that of 1-km. For cloudy-sky, the rRMSE and rbias of the USWTRM at fine-scale were 3.5%, and 0.0%, respectively. At 1-km, the rRMSE and rbias of the USWTRM were 0.9%, and 0.5%, respectively. In particular, the USWTRM outperformed previous studies in accurately quantifying the SWDR over rugged areas, under both clear and cloudy skies. Overall, the analysis reveals that the USWTRM works well over mountainous regions in terms of reliable accuracy, applicability, and generalization. It provides a new perspective for accurately deriving topographic SWDR at various scales and significantly reduces radiation uncertainties over rugged terrain.