Royal Tombs Research Articles

The Identification of the Sacred “Chiton” (Sarapis) of Pharaoh Alexander the Great in Tomb II at Vergina, Macedonia, Greece

ABSTRACT An unidentified material was found in the Royal Tomb II of Vergina, Greece within the golden ossuary (larnax) with the bones of the male occupant and his golden wreath. Physical, chemical, and microscopic analyses showed that it is a cotton textile dyed purple which sandwiches one or two layers of a whitish material made mainly of the mineral huntite. The presence of cotton is especially significant, as it downdates Tomb II. The physical description exactly fits the description in the ancient sources of the sacred Persian mesoleucon sarapis which belonged to Pharaoh and King Alexander the Great and as such it was the most precious object in antiquity. This sarapis is also depicted in the frieze of Tomb II on the sixth hunter, identified as Alexander. The Persian gazelle, depicted in the frieze also downdates Tomb II. Thus, many of the artifacts in Tomb II belonged to Alexander the Great.

Archaeological cognition of the Eastern mausoleum of Qin state using integrated space-ground observation tools

The Eastern Mausoleum of Qin State is a significant component of the Qin Dynasty's royal tombs, reflecting the social development level during the Warring States period (475 BC ~ 221 BC) in China. At the onset of our investigation, we mapped the site's boundaries utilizing Corona satellite imagery and employed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) to identify archaeological features. Additionally, this study is the first to propose the use of thermal infrared band data from the SDGSAT-1 satellite to explore thermal archaeological traces, demonstrating their viability for archaeological site analysis. Subsequently, electromagnetic (EM) prospection was utilized to validate the presence of an ancient burial chamber passage. Landscape monitoring and analysis of the No.1 Mausoleum were performed using Corona and Google Earth images, revealing the accuracy of the Geomancy Theory of Chinese mausoleums through dynamic remote sensing of surface changes. Furthermore, our employment of space-to-ground observational modalities and resultant Digital Elevation Models (DEM) have been used to provided new insights into the application of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geomancy in archaeology, thereby emphasizing the pivotal role of site selection in heritage preservation. This research underscores the promise of synergistic space-ground observations in both exploiting the archaeological riches of cultural heritage sites and ensuring the enduring conservation of these irreplaceable patrimonial assets.

A spectral cavalcade: Early Iron Age horse sacrifice at a royal tomb in southern Siberia

Abstract Horses began to feature prominently in funerary contexts in southern Siberia in the mid-second millennium BC, yet little is known about the use of these animals prior to the emergence of vibrant horse-riding groups in the first millennium BC. Here, the authors present the results of excavations at the late-ninth-century BC tomb of Tunnug 1 in Tuva, where the deposition of the remains of at least 18 horses and one human is reminiscent of sacrificial spectral riders described in fifth-century Scythian funerary rituals by Herodotus. The discovery of items of tack further reveals connections to the earliest horse cultures of Mongolia.

Exploring Artistic Hierarchies among Painters in Ramesside Deir el-Medina

Scholarship has described Deir el-Medina as a sophisticated community composed of highly trained and educated individuals, at least compared to most ancient Egyptian villages that were primarily focused on agrarian labor. The tombs at Deir el-Medina indicate that some community members were well-off financially and may have aspired to reach elite levels in ancient Egypt’s social hierarchy. However, this understanding of Deir el-Medina’s community lacks the nuance of the hierarchical structure that defines success and status among the workers, artists, and craftspeople living in the community. This paper will investigate how one’s status within the community might dictate the allocation of artistic roles in the execution of painted royal tomb scenes. It will explore who within the community would have the privilege of depicting the primary motifs of a tomb and who would be responsible for less noticeable areas of the tomb.

A Study on the Landscape Feng Shui of Joseon Royal Tombs - Focusing on the Sasinsa Temple of Donggureung

A Study on the Landscape Feng Shui of Joseon Royal Tombs - Focusing on the Sasinsa Temple of Donggureung

백제 무왕과 선화공주의 실체적 접근

In the Iksan area, archaeological ruins such as the royal palace, Mireuksa Temple, Jeseoksa Temple, Ssangneung Royal Tombs, and fortress walls, which are components of the ancient city wall, remain in better condition than those in the Gongju and Buyeo areas. In addition, there are documentary records that support the fact that the capital was relocated in the late Baekje period, proving that Iksan was also the royal capital of Baekje. However, because the direct record of the relocation of Iksan is omitted in 『Samguk Sagi』, many theories, such as “the transfer of the capital,” “another capital,” and etc., are being raised about the historical nature of Iksan in the late Baekje period. As part of the work to supplement the theory of the transfer of capital to Iksan during the reign of King Mu of Baekje, I seek to access the reality of King Mu (Seodong) and Princess Seonhwa who appear in the Seodong folktale through a new review of archaeological and literary data. In other words, uncovering the substantial truth about the two people is the most basic task to properly understand the historical character of Iksan during the reign of King Mu in the late Baekje. As a result of analyzing the tombs and literary materials excavated in the Iksan area, it was possible to examine the deeply rooted traditional historical awareness of Mahan. In addition, it was assumed that King Mu was an outstanding political figure representing the Mahan faction, not the Baekje royal family, who grew up in the Iksan region. The Mahan faction in the Iksan region, where the perception of Mahan had been deeply rooted, became King Mu's political base and was seen as a force supporting the relocation of the Iksan capital. As a result of comparative analysis of the birth stories of King Mu of Baekje and Emperor Gojo (Liu Bang) of the Han Dynasty, it was found that both of them ascended the throne from the same status as ordinary commoners, and thus, through “the theory of the divine right of kings”, such as that the king is the son of a dragon, the consciousness of blood-related succession to the throne, a general principle in ancient society, was overcome. It guarantees the identity of Mu's succession to the throne, and its value can be found comparable to that of the founding legend. The stone pillar-shaped tombstone discovered in Sowangnung tomb has the same characteristics as Tongcheonju (通天柱), and was seen as a symbolic mark of the nature of the origin of the deceased, which originated from the Buyeo succession consciousness that greatly increased after Baekje transferred the capital to Sabi. Therefore, it was assumed that the buried in Sowangneung's tomb was a person with the same status as a princess of the Baekje royal family. It is presumed that the Baekje royal family, which fell into chaos after the death of King Seong at the end of Baekje, sought political solidarity with the Mahan faction centered on Iksan for the stability and revival of the kingdom. It is thought that this could have been achieved through the marriage of a princess from the Baekje royal family to Seodong, a central political figure in the Mahan region of Iksan. The result is believed to have been the relocation of the capital to Iksan, as can be seen from the royal palace and other capital remains, which are the requirements of an ancient capital remaining in Iksan.

益山与东亚古代都城

The cultural heritage of Iksan possesses the structural characteristics of an ancient capital, with well-preserved palace grounds, Buddhist temples, the foundations of the royal city, substantially intact royal tombs, and a road network laid out in a grid pattern resembling the shape of the Chinese character “井”, all indicative of a capital city layout. Excavations at the royal palace site have unearthed roof tiles inscribed with the term of “首府(capital)”, while historical records refer to Iksan as the former capital, with both literature and archaeology supporting the notion of Iksan as an ancient capital. The capital Iksan exhibits features typical of East Asian capitals while also reflecting characteristics unique to Baekje's capitals. Under pressure from internal and external forces, Baekje kings may have adopted a “multi- capital system” to adapt and ensure survival. Sabi, Ungjin, and Iksan seem to have all served as capital cities during the reign of King Mu of Baekje. Archaeological findings, historical records, landmarks, and cultural relics collectively confirm the historical reality of Iksan as a capital city, fitting into the historical context of Baekje and conforming to the ancient capital typology of East Asia. Iksan's status as a capital city is substantiated, though the relevant evidence is fragmentary and lacks completeness and systemization. Only through comprehensive research utilizing the method of “bold hypothesis, careful verification” can we possibly confirm and elucidate the appearance and essence of its capital city.

어은리 출토 장식품으로 본 진한(辰韓)과 진한(秦漢)의 교류

The purpose of this paper is to grasp the exchange patterns between Golbeol state of Jin-han and Qin and Han Dynasties through the adornments excavated from Yeongcheon Eoeun-Ri. Analysis methods are ‘Cognitive archaeology’ and ‘restoring the object to its original shape’. Even if it is the same object, its description may vary depending on how it is perceived, and the shape of relics may also be determined by descriptions expressed differently. Collective descriptions that are being repeated can be considered as group perceptions being expressed and can also be understood as the representation of the group. If not just currently discovered relics but if the whole relics are also restored, the entire shape can be recognized even with some parts of the relics. This is ‘the restoration of the object to its original shape’. Among the adornments excavated in Eoeun-Ri, chariot adornments are parts of chariots that are excavated only from royal tombs of Ancient China, and through this fact, it can be assumed that the presence of specific chariot adornments indicates that such chariots could only be used by royalties. Although belt hooks were originated from nomad culture, as Kingdom Zhongshan became feudal lords of Ancient China, belt hooks were developed in Kingdom Zhongshan and then were introduced into the Korean Peninsula after the collapse of Kingdom Zhongshan; in this process, belt hooks were also introduced to Nakrang, affected by the establishment of a new distribution network through the collapse of Ancient Joseon and the expansion of Han’s influence at the time. Through this distribution network, not only belt hooks but also chariots that royalties of Ancient China used were introduced into the area of Eoeun-Ri (Golbeol state). As for the type of exchange, the perspective of ‘supply and demand’ can be considered. Although the royal class of Ancient China existed as the closest consumers, the fact that chariots were distributed all the way to Yeongcheon Eoeun-Ri area which is far in distance shows that there was a demand for high-end chariots from the chieftains of Golbeol state in Eoeun-Ri area, and at the same time it shows that although the chieftains of Golbeol state might be different in hierarchy, it had a similar position and sufficient purchasing power from those of Ancient China. In addition, it proves that Golbeol state was considerably a powerful force that chariots which only royalties could use for Nakrang and Ancient China were supplied. Since Eoeun-Ri area was located among other countries of Qin and Han Dynasties and Nakrang as well as Byeon-han, it is judged that Golbeol state played an important role as a traffic route.

함안 아라가야 고분의 봉토분 유형과 수장집단에 대한 연구

The purpose of this article is to restore the changed image of the Aragaya Tombs by analyzing the construction method of the Haman Malisan Ancient Tombs and Nammunoi Ancient Tombs, the royal tombs of Aragaya. The construction method of the silt was divided into three types by analyzing three methods: the anti-rock extraction method, the levee construction method, and the compartment construction method. Type A is a type in which the anti-rock extraction method is usually used, and the levee construction method and the compartment construction method are not used. Type A is divided into Type A-1 and Type A-2 depending on the location of the tomb. Type B was subdivided into Type B-1 and Type B-2 according to the degree of application of the levee construction method. The levee construction method is used on the outer edge of the levee, and the soil is built using the compartment construction method inside the levee. In Type C, the use of soil construction method is reduced on the outer edge of the levee, but the compartmentalization construction method is still used. Aragaya appears to be divided in the order of the head group according to the type of tombs.

Place and Person at Pre-Hispanic Teotihuacan, Mexico

There are significant societal differences evident in the material remains of the Classic period (ca. AD 250-600) city of Teotihuacan in central Mexico compared to contemporary Maya kingdoms in southern Mexico and Guatemala, despite both being part of the larger Mesoamerican civilization, sharing many cultural features. One proposed explanation for these differences derives from an analytical social science dichotomy that contrasts groups and individuals. According to this approach, Maya art and architecture indicate a society centered on individuals, particularly the rivalrous semi-divine rulers. Teotihuacan’s depersonalized art, lack of royal tombs, and gridded city plan are believed to indicate a corporate ethos in which individuals were subsumed by the societal collective. However, archaeological evidence for these interpretations is not compelling; moreover, the dichotomy itself is misleading. The key to these differences may lie in conceptions of embodied versus emplaced personae. The identity of Teotihuacanos was shaped by living within the city itself, and their concepts of personhood were entwined with their built environment in ways different from their Maya counterparts.

수서동 유적으로 본 조선시대 사찰의 성격 변화 연구

Since its arrival in Korea in A.D. 372, Buddhism gained widespread acceptance with support from the royal family and ruling classes. However, during the Joseon Dynasty, Buddhism declined as Confucian scholars came to power, leading to a reduction in national economic backing for temples. Despite this, the royal family and prominent families continued to support Buddhism initially. Nevertheless, the role of temples in rituals and tomb protection diminished as Confucianism gained prominence. The Imjin War expedited the decline of royal tombs, with even Neungchimsa Temple, responsible for their management, ceasing to exist in some cases. Some temples near Neung were designated for tomb management but without financial support, they too declined. The Suseo-dong ruins, constructed in the late 15th century and active until the 19th century, consisted of 12 buildings and four tile kilns. Initially, nine buildings and kilns were built around a central yard in the late 15th century. Later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the kilns were destroyed, and three overlapping buildings were arranged. Excavations revealed high-quality porcelain, sharpen tiles, and dragon-patterned tiles suitable for royal or related facilities, along with lotus and Sanskrit marked tiles used in temples. In 1495, the tomb site of Gwangpyung Prince (1425-1444) was relocated to the Seonneung site, and a Bunam for the Gwangpyung Prince family was erected, serving for at least a century. Between the early 17th century and 1728, the site was known as Bongheon Temple, later dedicated to Jopo Temple, responsible for managing Heonneung. The temple's nature shifted from a private family temple (Bunam) to a tomb management temple (Jopo). Despite maintaining its reputation until at least 1872, Bongheon Temple eventually closed due to a lack of economic support.

Monumental Walls, Sovereign Power and Value(s) in Pharaonic Egypt

Large walling projects are among the most visible features in the archaeological record. However, enclosure walls remain relatively under-theorized relative to other monumental buildings. In an attempt to move beyond simple explanations that analyse walls solely as defensive features or symbols, I link monumental walls to notions of sovereign power and action-oriented theories of value(s). Using examples from Pharaonic Egypt, I argue that monumental enclosure walls were attempts to define and realize particular social totalities, whether these were a temple complex, a royal tomb or an urban centre. If all efforts at border-making are also an exercise in power, walls have the potential to illuminate some of the goals and values of those ordering their construction. By analysing changes and continuities related to which structures required the protection of a monumental enclosure wall over time, it is possible to shed light on the fluid priorities of the most important political actors in Pharaonic society. Yet the very presence of a wall implies potential dissent and alternative practices—otherwise a wall's construction would not have been necessary.

조선 초기 왕릉 제례의 제도적 모색과 俗祭로의 재편

조선 초기 왕릉 제례의 제도적 모색과 俗祭로의 재편

The Tomb and treasury of Hülegü Khan

The Il-Khan ruler Hülegü (1215–1265 CE) was a grandson of Genghis Khan (the founder of the Mongol Empire), a son of Tolui, and a brother of both Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. He died on February 8, 1265, CE, at an estimated age of 48 years. Unlike our knowledge about the death and burial of Genghis Khan (d. 1227 CE), which is recorded in one of the oldest of the autochthonous chronicles, The Secret History of the Mongols, with no reference to time or place, the approximate location of Hülegü’s final resting place is referenced in several documents. Contemporary Persian resources unanimously suggest that the treasury and royal tomb of Hülegü Khan lie somewhere in Lake Urmia on Shahi Island (Jazīreh-ye-Shāhī), Northwest Iran. Rashīd al-Dīn posited that the Hülegü’s treasury is filled with pillow-size gold ingots and treasures gathered from across the Ilkhanid Empire. The exact location and discovery of this hidden treasure and the burial place of Hülegü remain one of the most persistent unsolved mysteries and none of the later archaeological studies challenged this attribution. This paper will discuss the idea that Shahi Island contains the fabled tomb of the legendary ruler of Ilkhanid Iran (1256–1335 CE) Hülegü, his sons Abaqa Khan (1234–1282 CE), as well as Mongol queens, high priests, and other elites. The findings of this research are important because they could launch a new era for Mongol studies and the archaeology of hidden treasures.

Historic British Royal Memes

Historic British Royal Memes

국립중앙박물관 소장 청자 투각칠보문뚜껑 향로를 받치는 토끼 조형의 맥락과 함의

This study discusses the symbolism of the rabbit statue on the base of a celadon incense burner with an openwork auspicious-character design lid in the National Museum of Korea. Chapter II analyzes the overall design of the incense burner, pointing out that although the rabbit statue is small in size, it is a three-dimensional figure with detailed carving of each part of the body and inlaid techniques used to express the eyes, making it an important component that embodies artistry beyond a simple base. Chapter III explores the spectrum of perceptions of the rabbit by examining rabbit sculptures from before the Goryeo period. As a symbol of fertility and longevity, thought to be a guide to the quick passage of the souls of the dead to the afterlife, rabbits were attached to funerary urns in the Silla period. They were depicted as moon symbols in Goguryeo tomb paintings and Unified Silla roof-end tiles. In Unified Silla, rabbits were also carved into royal tombs as members of the Twelve Great Deities to show the despotic kingship of the kings guarding the tomb, or were majestically displayed in stupas to represent the authority of Bhaisajyaguru. In Chapter IV, the meaning of the three rabbits supporting the incense burner was derived from three aspects. First, the intention of the rabbit's representation on the incense was inferred from the similarities between the rabbit's self-sacrifice and the offering of incense in The Jataka Tales of the Rabbit's Original Life (Sasa Jataka), which is to burn oneself and offer it to the gods. Since the rabbit was Buddha in the previous life, the life in which he practiced the great act of selflessness, it is believed that the rabbit was chosen to stand alone on the base of the incense burner, even though it does not symbolize absolute physical power. Through this carving of the rabbit, it can be seen that the 12th-century Goryeo people understood the offering of incense and the act of self-sacrifice in the same context. Second, the appearance of rabbits in historical texts and geographical journals from the Three Kingdoms and Goryeo periods was examined. In doing so, the chapter describes who recognized rabbits as auspicious animals in addition to being a symbol in Buddhism. Third, it discusses the internationalization of Goryeo culture, which is reflected in the sculpture of the atlas that supports the top. It is interpreted that the incense burner represents the cosmopolitanism of Goryeo culture because the rabbit statue on the incense burner was arranged in a form similar to the atlas statues popular in ancient Greece, Persia, and India and spread along the Silk Road.

A MULTI-ANALYTICAL STUDY OF BUILDING MATERIALS AND DETERIORATION PRODUCTS OF THE ROYAL TOMBS TO TANIS (SAN EL- HAGAR)

The city of Tanis is one of the most important cities in ancient Egypt. It was the northern capital of Egypt and the royal headquarters of the kings of the twenty -first and twenty -two dynasty. It is in the east of the Delta, about 150 km northeast of Cairo, on the ancient Tanis branch of the Nile. The Royal tombs of Tanis was discovered by the French archaeological Pierre Monte in 1999. The material building materials are currently suffering due to many aspects and factors of physical, chemical, biological, and human damage, such as the deterioration and loss of many stone blocks, binding mortar, and decorative units, accumulation of dusts and cracks that are varied in shapes and sizes in the painting, crystallization of salts on the surface and between layers, which led to the separation, fragmentation and peeling of the stone surface and the disappearance of many decorative elements, scenery and colored relives. Therefore, the research aims to study the materials for building tombs to find out the most important physical and chemical changes that occurred to them and led to their deterioration in preparation for the development of a scientific plan for the restoration and conservation of these tombs and their decorative elements. The components of the tombs were studied through investigation and using various analysis methods such as X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscope with Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) analysis of elements, Polarizing Microscope (PM). physical and mechanical properties of the stones used in the construction of graves were carried out. The results The results indicated that, the tombs were constructed using blocks of restricted limestone and were linked with a mortar of Gypsum, sand and stone powder and used some granite pieces in the doorstep over the entrances, and the main reason for the damage of building materials is a group of natural factors, the most important of which is rain water, the ground water and the various salts it contains due to the low location of the tombs within the archaeological hill and the proximity of the archaeological hill to the salty water sources represented in Lake Manzala, agricultural lands, waterways and agricultural banks.

Tang dynasty Tuyuhun royal tombs in Wuwei, Gansu

Abstract In 2019, the Gansu Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology and other institutions excavated the tomb of Murong Zhi, the King Xi of Tuyuhun, located at Chashan Village, Qilian Town, Tianzhu County. A comprehensive archaeological survey of the Binggou and Dashui river valleys in Qilian Town in 2020 revealed the existence of 23 Tuyuhun royal tombs across four areas. Three tombs at the Changling-Machangtan area in Qilian Town, excavated in 2021, are identified as a probable section of the Tuyuhun Pengzi clan’s family cemetery during the Tang dynasty. Through ongoing archaeological work, three large mausoleum areas have been confirmed in Wuwei’s Nanshan district: Yanghui Valley, Great Khan Mausoleum, and Baiyang Mountain. The tomb distribution is characterized by being widely dispersed but mutually connected. Excavations also confirm that Tuyuhun tombs were constructed without aboveground mounds. Additionally, rare Tang artifacts were discovered.

Rethinking the German Tokens Uncovered in Amasya, Harşena Fortress and Maidens’ Palace Excavations

Amasya, Harşena Fortress which rises from the banks of Yeşilırmak is comprised of three parts. From top to bottom, Harşena Fortress which is also called the upper fortress, the area in front of the rock-cut King Tombs which was called the Maidens’ Palace at the middle and the area called the Lower Palace, today’s Hatuniye District, at the bottom. The 2009-2010 excavations were done in an area north of Harşena Fortress’ cannon tower; excavation seasons of 2011-2013 were done in the area, front of the Royal Tombs in Maidens’ Palace area; excavations of 2017-2019 in Harşena Fortress were done in the area named as the Mosque Area, located at the entrance of the castle, South of the Watchtower. Coin-like tokens which were known from the ancient-time have been utilized for many different reasons. Coins are metallic money which were minted by the political authority, that were used in the trade and had economic value. When the Roman numerical system has been abandoned for the Arabic numerals the usage of tokens for calculation in Europe has also been abandoned. After 16th century tokens were utilized as some type of medal. City of Nuremberg in Germany had been the main producer of tokens. After 17th century tokens got smaller and turned into the game chips. To this day 8 German tokens were uncovered in the excavations in Amasya, Harşena Fortress and Maidens’ Palace. Amasya had always been a trade hub in the Ottoman period. The silk produced in the city had also been a developing trade endeavor in XIX century Amasya. The Germans who settled in the Amasya in this period made contributions to the silk production in the city. Especially this trade with the Germans can explain the German tokens found in the Amasya Fortress.

Remotely Sensing the Invisible—Thermal and Magnetic Survey Data Integration for Landscape Archaeology

Archaeological landscapes can be obscured by environmental factors, rendering conventional visual interpretation of optical data problematic. The absence of evidence can lead to seemingly empty locations and isolated monuments. This, in turn, influences the cultural–historical interpretation of archaeological sites. Here, we assess the potential of integrating thermal and magnetic remote sensing methods in the detection and mapping of buried archaeological structures. The area of interest in an alluvial plain in Tuva Republic makes the application of standard methods like optical remote sensing and field walking impractical, as natural vegetation features effectively hide anthropogenic structures. We combined drone-based aerial thermography and airborne and ground-based magnetometry to establish an approach to reliably identifying stone structures concealed within alluvial soils. The data integration led to the discovery of nine buried archaeological structures in proximity to an Early Iron Age royal tomb, shedding light on ritual land use continuity patterns.