Python Regius Research Articles

EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MIDAZOLAM AND FLUMAZENIL IN THE BALL PYTHON (PYTHON REGIUS).

The study objective was to evaluate the sedative, muscle relaxant, and cardiorespiratory effects of midazolam and flumazenil in the ball python (Python regius). Ten healthy adult female ball pythons were used in a randomized and blinded crossover trial evaluating the effects of two dosages (1 and 2 mg/kg intramuscular [i.m.] in the cranial third of the body). In a subsequent open trial, nine ball pythons received 1 mg/kg i.m. of midazolam followed by 0.08 mg/kg i.m. of flumazenil 60 min later. Heart rate, respiratory rate, temperature, and the level of sedation and muscle relaxation (using a semiobjective scoring system) were evaluated. There were no significant differences between midazolam dosages for any of the parameters evaluated. Sedation scores were significantly increased compared with baseline from 15 min (1 mg/kg) and 10 min (2 mg/kg) postinjection up until 56 hr (1 mg/kg) and 72 hr (2 mg/kg) postinjection. Peak effect was reached 60 min postinjection, with 60% of snakes (6/10) being unable to right themselves. One snake developed paradoxical excitation with the 2 mg/kg dosage. Heart rates were significantly lower than baseline from 30 min to 128 hr postinjection with both midazolam dosages. Respiratory rates were significantly lower than baseline at four time points, with the highest dosage only: 15, 45, 60 min, and 8 hr postinjection. Flumazenil resulted in reversal of sedation and muscle relaxation in all snakes within 10 min of administration. However, resedation was evident in all snakes 3 hr after reversal. Midazolam administered at 1 and 2 mg/kg i.m. provides a moderate to profound, although prolonged, sedation and muscle relaxation in ball pythons. Flumazenil reverses the effects of midazolam in ball pythons, but its duration of action at the evaluated dosage is much shorter than midazolam, leading to resedation.

Pharmacokinetics of midazolam and its major metabolite 1-hydroxymidazolam in the ball python (Python regius) after intracardiac and intramuscular administrations.

Midazolam is a benzodiazepine with sedative, muscle relaxant, anxiolytic, and anticonvulsant effects. Twelve ball pythons (Python regius) were used in a parallel study evaluating the pharmacokinetics of 1mg/kg midazolam following a single intracardiac (IC) or intramuscular (IM) administration. Blood was collected from a central venous catheter placed 7days prior, or by cardiocentesis, at 15 time points starting just prior to and up to 72hr after drug administration. Plasma concentrations of midazolam and 1-hydroxymidazolam were determined by the use of high-performance liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry and pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using noncompartmental analysis. The mean±SD terminal half-lives of IC and IM midazolam were 12.04±3.25hr and 16.54±7.10hr, respectively. The area under the concentration-time curve extrapolated to infinity, clearance, and apparent volume of distribution in steady-state of IC midazolam were 19,112.3±3,095.9ng*hr/ml, 0.053±0.008 Lhr-1 kg-1 , and 0.865±0.289L/kg, respectively. The bioavailability of IM midazolam was estimated at 89%. Maximum plasma concentrations following an IM administration were reached 2.33±0.98hr and 24.00±14.12hr postinjection for midazolam and 1-hydroxymidazolam, respectively, and 22.33±20.26hr postinjection for 1-hydroxymidazolam following IC administration.

Effects of midazolam and nitrous oxide on the minimum anesthetic concentration of isoflurane in the ball python (Python regius)

ObjectiveTo evaluate the effects of midazolam and nitrous oxide (N2O) on the minimum anesthetic concentration of isoflurane (MACISO) in ball pythons. Study designProspective, crossover, randomized, semi-blinded study. AnimalsA total of nine healthy adult female ball pythons (Python regius) weighing 2.76 ± 0.73 kg. MethodsIn each snake, three protocols were evaluated with 2 week washouts: treatment MID–O2, midazolam (1 mg kg−1) administered intramuscularly (IM) and anesthesia induced with isoflurane–oxygen; treatment SAL–O2, saline (0.2 mL kg−1) IM and anesthesia with isoflurane–oxygen; and treatment SAL–N2O, saline IM and anesthesia with isoflurane and 50% nitrous oxide (N2O):50% oxygen. In each treatment, isoflurane was administered by face mask immediately after premedication. Snakes were endotracheally intubated and inspired and end-tidal isoflurane concentrations were monitored. The study design followed a standard bracketing technique, and the MACISO was determined using logistic regression. Electrical stimulation using a Grass stimulator connected to the base of the tail (50 V, 50 Hz, 6.5 ms pulse−1) was used as the supramaximal stimulus. Blood-gas analysis was performed on cardiac blood collected immediately following intubation and after the last stimulation. Blood-gas variables were compared over time and between treatments using linear mixed models. ResultsMACISO at a body temperature of 30.1 ± 0.4 °C was 1.11% (95% confidence interval, 0.94–1.28%) in SAL–O2 and was significantly decreased to 0.48% (0.29–0.67%) in MID–O2 (p < 0.001) and to 0.92% (0.74–1.09%) in SAL–N2O (p = 0.016). PO2 was significantly lower in MID–O2 and SAL–N2O than in SAL–O2. Conclusions and clinical relevanceMidazolam significantly decreased the MACISO by 57% in ball pythons, whereas addition of N2O resulted in a modest, although significant, decrease (17%). MACISO in ball pythons was lower than those previously reported in reptiles.

First molecular detection of ball python nidovirus in Italy - Short communication.

A retrospective study was conducted to investigate the presence of ferlavirus, ball python nidovirus and bacteria in 32 tracheobronchial lavages from ball pythons raised in captivity and affected by respiratory disease. A touchdown reverse transcription polymerase reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to detect ball python nidovirus RNA targeting a 260-bp portion of the ORF1a gene, while a nested RT-PCR was applied to identify RNA targeting the 518-bp ferlavirus partial L gene. RT-PCR positive products were submitted for Sanger's sequencing and phylogeny reconstruction. Bacteriological examinations were performed to diagnose a possible bacterial involvement. BLAST analysis revealed that the nucleotide sequences of the six (18.8%) RT-PCR positive amplicons were 90-97% identical to the partial sequence of the ORF1a gene of the recently described ball python nidovirus. All tested snakes were negative for ferlavirus. Thirteen out of 32 samples (40.6%) were bacteriologically positive. Respiratory tract diseases can be a substantial problem for snake breeders, considering the rapid transmission of respiratory pathogens. The results and published studies show that ball python nidovirus is circulating in python collections and could be linked to suboptimal management practices. Surveillance programs are desirable as part of the routine snake health assessment. Tracheobronchial lavage is a fast, practical, cost-effective procedure for sample collection.

Proposal of Lysobacter pythonis sp. nov. isolated from royal pythons (Python regius)

The bacterial strains 4284/11T and 812/17 isolated from the respiratory tract of two royal pythons in 2011 and 2017, respectively were subjected to taxonomic characterization. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of the two strains were identical and showed highest sequence similarities to Lysobacter tolerans UM1T (97.2%) and Luteimonas aestuarii DSM 19680T (96.7 %). The two strains were identical in the sequences of the 16S-23S rRNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and partial groEL gene sequences and almost identical in genomic fingerprints. In the ITS sequence Ly. tolerans DSM 28473T and in the groEL nucleotide sequence Luteimonas mephitis DSM 12574T showed the highest similarity. In silico DDH analyses using genome sequence based ANIb and gANI similarity coefficients demonstrated that strain 4284/11T represents a novel species and revealed Ly. tolerans UM1T as the next relative (ANIb = 76.2 %, gANI = 78.0 %). Based on the topology of a core gene phylogeny strain 4284/11T could be assigned to the genus Lysobacter. Chemotaxonomic characteristics including polyamine pattern, quinone system, polar lipid profile and fatty acid profile were in accordance with the characteristics of the genera Lysobacter and Luteimonas. Strains 4284/11T and 812/17 could be differentiated from the type strains of the most closely related species by several physiological tests. In conclusion we are here proposing the novel species Lysobacter pythonis sp. nov. The type strain is 4284/11T (= CCM 8829T = CCUG 72164T = LMG 30630T) and strain 812/17 (CCM 8830) is a second strain of this species.

Exploring Convergence of Snake-Skin-Inspired Texture Designs and Additive Manufacturing for Mechanical Traction

Abstract This research explores the convergence of a 3D printing process with snake-skin-inspired textures for mechanical traction. The design attributes of snake skin scales were studied via the shed skin of species Python Regius . Snake skin design, especially on ventricular side, consists of hexagonal scale patterns with denticulations and fibrils as hierarchical structures of the design. The snake-skin-inspired design was then explored for printing using the laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) manufacturing technique on 420 stainless steel. It was discovered that the surface roughness generated by the laser scanning path during the 3D printing technique closely mimics the hierarchical micro-texture of snake skin scales. The texture of the 3D printed part surface was measured using the JIS B 06061-2001 standard by a laser scanning microscope and this manuscript presents a comparison of the 3D printed texture with the shed snake skin surface. This paper also discusses directional traction properties of the printed surface using tribological study.

Ophidian Cloacal Scent Gland Impaction and Surgical Excision: A Case Series in Six Different Snake Species

Members of the suborder Serpentes possess paired scent glands located caudal to the vent. In this retrospective case series (n = 6), four colubrids, a boid, and a viperid presented with cloacal scent gland impaction. The colubrids were greater than 17 yr old, had both glands initially or eventually affected (4/4, 100%), and most (3/4, 75%) were females. The python (Python regius) was a 10 yr old male, and the viper (Agkistrodon contortrix pictigaster) was of undetermined age and male. In the non-colubrid snakes, gland impaction was unilateral. Infection (4/6, 66.7%), mineralization (1/6, 16.7%), and neoplasia (1/6, 16.7%; fibrosarcoma) were associated with the gland impactions in the colubrids and python; a colubrid with neoplasia also had a concurrent bacterial infection and the cause of impaction was not determined in the viper (1/6, 16.7%). Medical management was attempted in 1/6 (16.7%) of the cases but was unsuccessful. Overall, complete surgical excision was realized in 9 of 10 (90%) affected glands. Postoperative infection of the surgery site was encountered in two (33.3%) snakes. The colubrids died 6 wk to 5 yr postoperatively of causes unrelated to the surgery. No complications occurred in a 5 yr follow-up of the viper, whereas an impaction recurred in association with residual glandular tissue and had to be surgically removed in the python 2 yr after surgery. Interspecific differences, age, husbandry, and concomitant pathological processes are suggested to be potential predisposing factors to developing a cloacal scent gland impaction, but additional cases supported by a thorough husbandry and medical history are needed to better delineate these possible associations.

James LE, Williams CJA, Bertelsen MF, Wang T: Anaesthetic induction with alfaxalone in the ball python (Python regius): dose response and effect of injection site. Vet Anaesth Analg 45:329-337, 2018.

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is a part of the natural bacterial biota of pet turtles which can opportunistically cause human salmonellosis. In this study, virulence, antimicrobial resistance gene properties, and class 1 integron gene cassettes of 35 S. enterica subsp. enterica strains were investigated. The isolates were identified as S. Pomona (n = 9), S. Paratyphi (n = 7), S. Typhimurium (n = 5), S. Thompson (n = 5), S. Stanley (n = 4), S. Braenderup (n = 2), S. Kentucky (n = 1), S. Singapore (n = 1), and S. Potsdam (n = 1), respectively. By polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of virulence genes, invA and stn genes were detected in every isolate. The fimH and pefA genes were detected in 15 (42.86%) and 14 (40.00%) isolates, respectively. However, none of the isolates harbored fimA and spvC genes. In antimicrobial susceptibility testing, the resistance rates were observed against ampicillin (40.00%), cephalothin (34.00%), streptomycin (20.00%), and chloramphenicol (10.00%). The presence of streptomycin resistance encoding strA-strB gene was found in 12 (40.00%) isolates. Class 1 integron gene cassettes, qacE2 and orfD were identified in 8 (22.86%) strains. The results revealed that pet turtle-borne S. enterica subsp. enterica can harbor a considerable number of virulence, antimicrobial resistance genes, and class 1 integrons represent a potential risk for pet turtle keepers which must not be underestimated.

A fixed moderate-dose combination of tiletamine+zolazepam outperforms midazolam in induction of short-term immobilization of ball pythons (Python regius).

Laboratory animals are commonly anesthetized to prevent pain and distress and to provide safe handling. Anesthesia procedures are well-developed for common laboratory mammals, but not as well established in reptiles. We assessed the performance of intramuscularly injected tiletamine (dissociative anesthetic) and zolazepam (benzodiazepine sedative) in fixed combination (2 mg/kg and 3 mg/kg) in comparison to 2 mg/kg of midazolam (benzodiazepine sedative) in ball pythons (Python regius). We measured heart and respiratory rates and quantified induction parameters (i.e., time to loss of righting reflex, time to loss of withdrawal reflex) and recovery parameters (i.e., time to regain righting reflex, withdrawal reflex, normal behavior). Mild decreases in heart and respiratory rates (median decrease of <10 beats per minute and <5 breaths per minute) were observed for most time points among all three anesthetic dose groups. No statistically significant difference between the median time to loss of righting reflex was observed among animals of any group (p = 0.783). However, the withdrawal reflex was lost in all snakes receiving 3mg/kg of tiletamine+zolazepam but not in all animals of the other two groups (p = 0.0004). In addition, the time for animals to regain the righting reflex and resume normal behavior was longer in the drug combination dose groups compared to the midazolam group (p = 0.0055). Our results indicate that midazolam is an adequate sedative for ball pythons but does not suffice to achieve reliable immobilization or anesthesia, whereas tiletamine+zolazepam achieves short-term anesthesia in a dose-dependent manner.

Antinociceptive efficacy and respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine in ball pythons (Python regius).

OBJECTIVE To determine antinociceptive efficacy, behavioral patterns, and respiratory effects associated with dexmedetomidine administration in ball pythons (Python regius). ANIMALS 12 ball pythons. PROCEDURES Antinociception was assessed by applying an infrared heat stimulus to the cranioventral surface of snakes during 2 experiments. Thermal withdrawal latency was measured at 0, 2, and 24 hours after SC injections of dexmedetomidine (0.1 or 0.2 mg/kg) or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution and at 0 to 60 minutes after injection of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. Behaviors were recorded at 0, 2, and 24 hours after administration of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. Tongue flicking, head flinch to the approach of an observer's hand, movement, and righting reflex were scored. Respiratory frequency was measured by use of plethysmography to detect breathing-related movements after injection of dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg) or saline solution. RESULTS Mean baseline withdrawal latency was 5 to 7 seconds; saline solution did not alter withdrawal latency. Dexmedetomidine increased withdrawal latency by 18 seconds (0.2 mg/kg) and 13 seconds (0.1 mg/kg) above baseline values at 2 hours. Increased withdrawal latency was detected within 15 minutes after dexmedetomidine administration. At 2 hours after injection, there were few differences in behavioral scores. Dexmedetomidine injection depressed respiratory frequency by 55% to 70%, compared with results for saline solution, but snakes continued to breathe without prolonged apnea. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Dexmedetomidine increased noxious thermal withdrawal latency without causing excessive sedation. Therefore, dexmedetomidine may be a useful analgesic drug in ball pythons and other snake species.

Monitoring the reproductive activity in captive bred female ball pythons (P. regius) by ultrasound evaluation and noninvasive analysis of faecal reproductive hormone (progesterone and 17β-estradiol) metabolites trends.

The royal python (Python regius) is commonly bred in captivity. To have a successful breeding season, accurate monitoring of the reproductive activity is necessary. The use of non-invasive monitoring methods in exotics is important in order to minimize stress. For this purpose ultrasound has been anecdotally used to monitor royal python reproductive activity. However, there is limited information regarding the reproductive cycle of this species. The aim of the present study is to monitor the female reproductive cycle of the royal python using ultrasonography and gonadal steroid metabolite measurements in the faeces. The reproductive activity of one hundred twenty-nine adult female P. regius was examined during two consecutive years. We performed brief scans on non-anaesthetized snakes using a portable ultrasound system and a 10–12 MHz linear array transducer (MyLab™ 30 Gold, Esaote). Ultrasound features, dimension and echogenicity of the reproductive structures were determined. During the second reproductive cycle, the hormonal profiles of 30 animals were also evaluated, with a monthly collection of faecal samples. These samples were classified according to reproductive stage, as identified by ultrasonographic examination, and the mean faecal progesterone and 17β-estradiol levels were calculated using the results from an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Progesterone levels increased during the reproductive cycle. Estradiol levels showed greater variability, although they appeared to increase before coupling when compared to the levels between coupling and egg laying. The present study suggests that it is possible to identify different phases in the female royal python reproductive cycle: anovulatory phase, transition, folliculogenesis and embryogenesis. Ultrasound is also useful for identifying follicular regression or slugs. Gonadal steroid metabolite measurements from the faeces could help integrate reproductive information. The use of ultrasonography in addition to the steroid metabolite measurement in the faeces gives an accurate picture of ovarian activity in captive adult female royal pythons.

Notes from the Field: Investigation of an Outbreak of Salmonella Paratyphi B Variant L(+) tartrate + (Java) Associated with Ball Python Exposure - United States, 2017.

Notes from the Field: Investigation of an Outbreak of Salmonella Paratyphi B Variant L(+) tartrate + (Java) Associated with Ball Python Exposure - United States, 2017.

Pythons build up brains after digesting dinner

If the bulk of your life is spent sitting around waiting for a dish to amble past – and you never know when that could be – it makes sense to cut back on the non-essentials. For ball pythons, this can mean reducing the size of pretty much all of the digestive system and the heart. However, when a python's luck is in, the race is on to build up these organs as rapidly as possible in a bid to make the most of dinner. Christine Strand from California Polytechnic State University (Cal. Poly.), USA, explains that many people have studied how the reptiles swiftly soup up their heart and digestive organs after consuming a meal: ‘But no one had looked into how feeding affects the brain’, she says.Intrigued by the possibility that feasting pythons may grow new brain cells that could eventually go on to form new neurons, Strand, Stacy Habroun (now at University of California San Diego, USA) and Emily Taylor decided to monitor the brains of adolescent pythons after feeding. ‘We weren't sure if the brain would respond to feeding by increasing cell proliferation’, Strand admits. However, she reasoned that if the brain did grow, there were two possible time points when it could occur: while the snake was digesting its meal and building up its other organs, or after digestion was complete, when the snake's system was full of fresh nutrients and it had energy to spare.Having convinced ball pythons, which are notoriously fussy eaters, to consume a substantial meal of mice, Habroun and Strand allowed some of the snakes 2 days to begin digesting their meal while the remaining snakes were allowed 6 days to complete digestion before the pair collected samples from the animals’ brains. However, a day before taking the samples, Habroun injected the snakes with a tracer that would only be incorporated into newly born cells, in the hope that it would reveal whether, and when, the brains of the satisfied snakes had grown. Then, Habroun and Strand worked with Andrew Schaffner, also from Cal. Poly., to compare the pythons’ brains and the results were impressive. ‘We found a huge increase in cell proliferation in the brain 6 days after feeding, compared to the group that was fed 2 days before’, says Strand. So, the snakes were investing energy in building up their brains when they had energy to spare after the exertions of digestion. And, while the growth occurred throughout the brain, some was concentrated in specific regions with different functions, including spatial memory, sensory processing and controlling feeding and drinking.Ultimately, Strand would like to know the fate of the new-born brain cells, and she says, ‘We would like to look at the survival of the new cells and track where they go in the brain and whether or not they become neurons’. She also suspects that the well-fed snakes may be making hay while the sun shines. ‘The snakes in this study were juvenile, so they were definitely still growing. The increase in new cell growth after eating may occur because they have extra energy available for growth’, she says.

INVESTIGATION OF THE TRACHEAL MUCOCILIARY CLEARANCE IN SNAKES WITH AND WITHOUT BOID INCLUSION BODY DISEASE AND LUNG PATHOLOGY.

Pneumonia is a common complication of boid inclusion body disease (BIBD) in snakes. The tracheal mucociliary apparatus of eight boas ( Boa constrictor) and two pythons ( Python regius, Morelia viridis) was examined to assess whether absent or reduced mucociliary clearance could be a predisposing factor. Nine of the examined snakes were positive for BIBD by detection of inclusion bodies and three had lung pathologies other than the formation of inclusion bodies. A considerable individual variation of ciliary beat frequency (CBF, 3.0 ± 0.75 Hz to 7.8 ± 1.27 Hz), transport speed (23.1 ± 12.56 μm/sec to 189.2 ± 41.17 μm/sec), and transport direction (-12.5° ± 11.43° to 36.1° ± 7.53°) was found. CBFs of the BIBD-affected snakes with or without lung pathologies were markedly lower than ranges published for birds or mammals, but the net transport speeds and directions lay well within. The present investigation does therefore not reveal any signs of an inadequate mucociliary clearance in BIBD-affected snakes.

Respiratory disease in ball pythons (Python regius) experimentally infected with ball python nidovirus

Circumstantial evidence has linked a new group of nidoviruses with respiratory disease in pythons, lizards, and cattle. We conducted experimental infections in ball pythons (Python regius) to test the hypothesis that ball python nidovirus (BPNV) infection results in respiratory disease. Three ball pythons were inoculated orally and intratracheally with cell culture isolated BPNV and two were sham inoculated. Antemortem choanal, oroesophageal, and cloacal swabs and postmortem tissues of infected snakes were positive for viral RNA, protein, and infectious virus by qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, western blot and virus isolation. Clinical signs included oral mucosal reddening, abundant mucus secretions, open-mouthed breathing, and anorexia. Histologic lesions included chronic-active mucinous rhinitis, stomatitis, tracheitis, esophagitis and proliferative interstitial pneumonia. Control snakes remained negative and free of clinical signs throughout the experiment. Our findings establish a causal relationship between nidovirus infection and respiratory disease in ball pythons and shed light on disease progression and transmission.

Anaesthetic induction with alfaxalone in the ball python (Python regius): dose response and effect of injection site

ObjectiveTo characterise the minimum dose of intramuscular alfaxalone required to facilitate intubation for mechanical ventilation, and to investigate the impact of cranial versus caudal injection on anaesthetic depth. Study designRandomised crossover study. AnimalsSix healthy juvenile ball pythons (Python regius). MethodsThree dosages (10, 20 and 30 mg kg–1) of alfaxalone were administered to each python in a caudal location with a minimum 2 weeks washout. Induction and recovery were monitored by assessing muscle tone, righting reflex, response to a noxious stimulus and the ability to intubate. A subsequent experiment assessed the influence of injection site by comparing administration of 20 mg kg–1 alfaxalone in a cranial location (1 cm cranial to the heart) with the caudal site. Respiration rate was monitored throughout, and when intubation was possible, snakes were mechanically ventilated. ResultsRegardless of dose and injection site, maximum effect was reached within 10.0 ± 2.7 minutes. When administered at the caudal injection site, intubation was only successful after a dosage of 30 mg kg-1, which is higher than in previous reports for other reptiles. However, intubation was possible in all cases after 7.2 ± 1.6 minutes upon cranial administration of 20 mg kg–1, and anaesthetic duration was significantly lengthened (p < 0.001). Both 30 mg kg–1 at the caudal site and 20 mg kg–1 at the cranial site led to apnoea approximately 10 minutes post-injection, at which time the snakes were intubated and mechanically ventilated. Conclusions and clinical relevanceAlfaxalone provided rapid, smooth induction when administered intramuscularly to pythons, and may serve as a useful induction agent prior to provision of volatile anaesthetics. The same dosage injected in the cranial site led to deeper anaesthesia than when injected caudally, suggesting that shunting to the liver and first-pass metabolism of alfaxalone occur when injected caudally, via the renal portal system.

Reptiles and Amphibians as Potential Reservoir Hosts of Chikungunya Virus.

Chikungunya virus is an emerging arbovirus of significant human-health concern. Little is known about its sylvatic cycle, including whether ectothermic vertebrates are permissive to infection. In this study, individuals from ten species of reptiles and amphibians were inoculated with chikungunya virus and samples of blood were tested to characterize viremia and seroconversion. Viremia was not detected in cane toads, house geckos, or American alligators, but most of the green iguanas, red-eared sliders, ball and Burmese pythons, leopard frogs, Texas toads, and garter snakes developed viremia. Peak virus titers in serum of up to 4.5, 4.7, and 5.1 log10 plaque-forming units per milliliter were observed for garter snakes, ball pythons, and Texas toads, respectively. These results add to those of other studies that have suggested a possible role for ectothermic vertebrates in the ecology of arbovirus maintenance and transmission in nature.

Food consumption increases cell proliferation in the python brain.

Pythons are model organisms for investigating physiological responses to food intake. While systemic growth in response to food consumption is well documented, what occurs in the brain is currently unexplored. In this study, male ball pythons (Python regius) were used to test the hypothesis that food consumption stimulates cell proliferation in the brain. We used 5-bromo-12'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) as a cell-birth marker to quantify and compare cell proliferation in the brain of fasted snakes and those at 2 and 6days after a meal. Throughout the telencephalon, cell proliferation was significantly increased in the 6day group, with no difference between the 2day group and controls. Systemic postprandial plasticity occurs quickly after a meal is ingested, during the period of active digestion; however, the brain displays a surge of cell proliferation after most digestion and absorption is complete.

Successful treatment of a necrotizing, multi-resistant bacterial pyoderma in a python with cold plasma therapy

A 4-year-old ball python was presented 3 weeks after multiple bite wounds from a prey rat with large skin lesions, a concurrent deep bacterial pyoderma and clinical signs for septicemia, including neurolo -gical symptoms. Affected tissue separated from the underlying muscular layer revealing parts of the muscles. Clinical examination and cyto -logy was consistent with bacterial pyoderma; septicemia was an additional tentative clinical diagnosis. Empirical lincomycin and marbo -floxacin (bacterial culture revealed a multi-resistant Stenotrophomonas maltophilia susceptible to fluoroquinolones) treatment improved the patient's general condition but skin wounds deteriorated to multifocal eschars with intracellular rods. Further diagnostics were limited for financial reasons, euthanasia was considered. Cold atmospheric pressure plasma (CAPP) therapy was performed six times in 4 weeks. Within 1 week, inflammatory symptoms resolved. Re-epithelialization was completed few weeks later. In the following year, the snake sloughed three times without any signs of dysecdysis. CAPP therapy may offer a viable treatment option for bacterial (especially multiresistant) pyoderma and necrotizing dermatitis in snakes.

Haemogregarine Genetic Diversity in Captive African Rock Pythons from Nigeria Suggests a Geographical Pattern.

Understanding the processes that drive parasite diversification, distribution, and abundance is central to disentangle the dynamics and evolution of diseases. In this study, we screened African rock pythons from Nigeria for the presence of blood parasites to assess their distribution, diversity, and phylogenetic relationships. A total of 21 captive African rock pythons collected from across 11 locations in Nigeria were sampled between August 2016 and January 2017. Samples were microscopically and genetically analyzed. From the blood smears analyzed, 10 (47.6%) snakes were found to be infected with haemogregarines. Eight of the infected samples were genetically assessed and confirmed as haemogregarines of the recently described Bartazoon group. Two haplotypes were retrieved, of which one was distributed in the northern-central sampled localities and the other in the southern localities. The two haplotypes were clustered in a clade of haemogregarines from snake, gecko, and rodent hosts, and among them, the haemogregarine species Hepatozoon ayorgbor was described from the ball python Python regius. Two haemogregarine haplotypes in Nigerian rock pythons, which appear to have a geographical pattern across the country, were detected in this study.