Royal Orders Research Articles

Liturgy as an instrument of confessional identification: William Laud and the challenge of “foreign churches” in England

This publication presents the first translation intoRussian of a number of documents which portray the religious policy ofWilliamLaud,Archbishop ofCanterbury, supported byCharlesIStuart, towards foreignReformed churches in theProvince ofCanterbury.The documents include royal orders given in various forms, notarial instruments, petitions fromCalvinist congregations to both theKing and theArchbishop, and excerpts from correspondence between representatives of said congregations.They demonstrate the role of liturgy as an instrument of confessional identification and, consequently, of politico-religious loyalty in seventeenth-centuryReformationEngland.The authors also note the correlation ofLaud’s ideas with the transformation of the corporate foundations ofEnglish society and the formation of an “individualist” type of relationship between theCrown and its subjects, based on archaic feudal law and the precedents of the classicalMiddleAges, the essence of which consisted of personal ties of allegiance between the monarch (his “body natural”) and the subject, rather than between the subject and the “body politic” of the monarch (i.e., the “country”).

«…Wishing to Take Due Precaution… and to Preserve the Honour and Decency of the Same City»: the Problem of the Sanitary Condition of 14th Century London and Attempts to Solve it

The article examines the problem of inadequate sanitary condition of the English capital in the 14th century and the attempts taken by official authorities – royal and municipal – to solve it, incl. against the backdrop of a plague epidemic. Based on the royal orders addressed to the London magistrate and the data from research literature, the author identifies and characterizes the main steps of the Crown and City administrations aimed at correcting the situation, considering, in particular, the history of the creation of two new cemeteries: East and West Smithfield and some controversial issues associated with it, for example, the problem of the authorship of the project, its implementation and the degree of the government’s participation in that. Estimates of the number, age and gender composition of the victims of the Black Death buried here are also provided. The results of the investigation lead the author to the conclusion that, despite its obvious significance, the issue of the neglected sanitary condition of London did not receive a comprehensive solution in the century under review, since it became relevant only if a critical level risked being reached, when, due to objective reasons, it could no longer be ignored. This also determined the impossibility of developing those few measures taken into a full-fledged state policy. At the same time, the need for changes in the field of municipal hygiene, aggravated by the epidemic, contributed to the intensification of public initiative, supported or directed by the monarch. Thus, a new impetus was given to the dialogue between the royal and municipal authorities in the development and implementation of a unified sanitation policy. In addition, addressing the topic under consideration is of great practical importance for reconstructing the picture of the daily life of a medieval city in an emergency and its preparedness for such trials making it possible to clarify the scale of the Black Death in London.

Путь к империи: становление придворной художественной культуры в России в петровское время

In the course of the project, the author investigates the area of Russian court art culture in the first quarter of the 18th century associated with the formation of the new state ceremonial. For the first time, the authors cover practically all key ceremonies regulating the life of the monarch and his family: coronation, marriage and funeral ceremonies, triumphs and ceremonial meetings organized both in Russia and abroad. The article follows the development of the major principles of festive and mourning decorations and — to the extent possible — their further development throughout the 18th century. Particular attention is paid to symbols of power and insignia, as well as the jewellery art at the Russian court. Based on the materials collected, the author uncovers the circumstances of the design and use of a number of graphic works, regalia, orders, and precious settings for the court jewels, elucidated the typology and terminology of jewellery, and significantly expanded the existing understanding of the work of the craftsmen who executed the royal orders of the Romanovs.
 In the process of this research, the project team introduced the unpublished graphic and written materials, new facts and names, made a number of attributions and clarifications, including terminology.
 The findings are presented in the published collective paper, which contains besides the authors’ text the annexes comprising the publication of the 18th century documents and rich illustrations (more than 330 images): Tyukhmeneva E.A., Bykova J.I. A Path to Empire: Formation of the Art Culture at the Russian Court of Peter the Great. Ceremonies, Regalia, Jewels. Moscow: BooksMArt, 2022 — 448 p: illus.

Безналичные расчеты россиян в Европе в эпоху Петра I

The paper considers financial technologies that were used in the time of Peter the Great to organize non-cash payments abroad. The sources for the study were legislative documents, letters of Peter the Great’s contemporaries and mentions of historians about financial calculations in Peter the Great’s time. The author considers the use of promissory notes and bills of exchange that were used in the time of Peter the Great to organize non-cash payments abroad. Russian merchants used them in trade settlements in Arkhangelsk long before Peter I. During the reforms of the first quarter of the XVIII century notes and bills settlements were carried out by Russian people on the territory of Europe already. This explains the wider use of the notes and bills in both interstate and private settlements, including the purposes of obtaining scholarships for young people sent abroad by Peter to study. Peter himself and his pets used all the means of payment available at that time in Europe – both cash (gold and silver coins) and non-cash means (promissory notes and bills of exchange). An important issuer of bills of exchange for Russians was the Amsterdam bank, since Amsterdam was the center for the sale of Russian goods. Not only trade transactions, but also the payment of royal orders in different countries, and the issuance of stipends to scholarship holders, took place by transferring bills of exchange from the Amsterdam bank or Amsterdam merchants accepted to other European cities of Europe. In addition to mastering the ‘basic’ profession, those staying abroad needed to show some financial literacy (which could not be obtained at home), skills in handling modern (for that time) securities, and visit banks from time to time. Russian students were prevented from studying not only by the possible temptations and pastime of a beautiful life abroad, but also by serious life difficulties that arose in connection with the financial crisis in France in 1720-21.

National Thanksgivings and Ideas of Britain, 1689–1816 by Warren Johnston

Reviewed by: National Thanksgivings and Ideas of Britain, 1689–1816 by Warren Johnston Jennifer Farooq National Thanksgivings and Ideas of Britain, 1689–1816. By Warren Johnston. (Woodbridge: Boydell Press. 2020. Pp. xviii, 413. $115.00. ISBN: 9781783273584.) Thanksgiving days were undoubtedly significant occasions in Britain and its colonies, which celebrated national occasions with church services, bonfires, and processions. Thanksgiving and fast days have received increasing attention, particularly with the publication of National Prayer: Special Worship since the Reformation, edited by Natalie Mears, Stephen Taylor, Philip Williamson and others (3 vols., Woodbridge, 2013–2020), which compile and analyze the royal orders and special prayers for these occasions. However, Johnston’s book is the first full-length study of the eighteenth-century British thanksgiving-day sermons. Johnston draws on 587 thanksgiving sermons printed in the British Isles and the British colonies between 1689 and 1816 to explore how preachers engaged with “ideas of Britain,” particularly British exceptionalism. National Thanksgivings highlights the unique political contexts of these occasions, declared in response to wars, rebellions, peace treaties, or royal accessions, which invited preachers to comment on current affairs in Britain. Johnston argues that thanksgiving-day sermons are particularly revealing because these occasions permitted a “much more spontaneous” (p. 1) and forward-looking response to these issues than other political occasions, such as national anniversary days. Thanksgiving days also were more widely observed than other political occasions by the various Protestant denominations, and even some Catholics, in the British Atlantic, and thanksgiving-day sermons were published in large numbers. Nevertheless, Johnston recognizes the complexities in the formation of national identities and emphasizes that purpose of the book “is to show what was being attempted from thanksgiving-day pulpits and publications, but not to determine how successful such efforts were in establishing British identity” (p. 10). Thus, he does not attempt to assess the sermons’ impact on their readers. National Thanksgivings instead carefully analyzes the preachers’ views on a range of issues, including providential interpretations of current events, political ideologies and conflicts, the conduct and costs of war and peace, the expansion of trade and empire, the relationships between British denominations, the challenges posed by Enlightenment ideas to Britain, and views of “the other” at home and abroad (chs. 3–10). Johnston also effectively uses recent scholarship to discuss the [End Page 207] nature of eighteenth-century preaching and printed sermons and the cultural context of thanksgiving days (chapters 1–2). He identifies much continuity in preachers’ ideas of Britain and uses examples from sermons that span the period to illustrate his analysis. However, the strongest chapters are those highlighting changes and continuities in partisan conflicts, attitudes towards Dissenters and Catholics, and perceptions of war and empire during the period. In fact, the extent of continuity in preachers’ arguments over the period is not always clear. For example, although Johnston notes differences in preachers’ interpretations of providence, it is unclear whether he detected any changes in these interpretations. It also would have been helpful if Johnston had consistently identified preachers’ partisan and religious persuasions when analyzing controversies, such as Anglican preachers’ views of Catholics and Dissenters, which frequently were influenced by their political opinions. It is difficult to keep track of preachers’ affiliations, even with the useful table of preachers in the appendices. More crucially, Johnston does not address the broader significance of thanksgiving-day sermons—to what extent were “ideas of Britain” addressed in sermons on other occasions? How closely did preachers’ ideas mirror ideas of Britain presented in other media? The existing scholarship on eighteenth-century sermons and national identity considers many of these ideas, and the book would have been more impactful if Johnston had attempted to answer these questions. Nevertheless, Johnston’s book offers a well-researched overview of what preachers told their audiences about Britons and their nation(s). It will be useful to scholars of religion, politics, and the development of Britain’s national identity. Hopefully, National Thanksgivings will provoke further research on sermons and their impact on society. Jennifer Farooq University of Regina Copyright © 2023 The Catholic University of America Press ...

Orders from disorder? King Kalākaua’s 1881 global tour and the Hawaiian monarchy’s late nineteenth-century deployment of royal orders and decorations

The history of the late nineteenth-century Hawaiian kingdom is often viewed as an inevitably tragic story. It comprises the rapid decline of the native Hawaiian population through disease, the weakening of Hawaiian monarchs’ political autonomy by pro-American sugar interests, followed by the US-led overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. The story culminates in formal annexation of the kingdom in 1898 and supposedly ends with Hawai’i’s admission as America’s 50th state in 1959. In fact, the history of the late nineteenth-century Hawaiian monarchy, and in particular its active resistance to US imperialism, remains a palpable force within contemporary Hawai’i. It influences the current native Hawaiian independence movement and informs a range of decolonising projects involving current scholars and activists across the Pacific. The following discussion of royal Hawaiian orders and decorations offers some new raw materials for those seeking to recover the agency and global entanglements of Hawai’i’s monarchy both prior to and following US annexation.

Theodoric the Great’s Legislation on Protection of Monuments and the Significance of the Ostrogothic Renaissance in the Context of Heritage Law History

Introduction. The Ostrogothic conquest of Italy is one of the turning points in the historical transition from the ancient Greco-Roman to the new European civilization to which we now tend to think that we belong. Since then, the protection of historical heritage has become one of the defining features of the European culture, particularly of the legal one. The transition from a cyclical to a linear model of time comprehension has occurred. The awareness of its transience and irreversibility as well as the fragility of the usual order of things is raised. In view of this, the best representatives of mankind become conscious of the need to preserve the best heritage of previous ages. Thus, the very spirit and principles of the future cultural heritage law are born. The aim of the article is an analysis of the array of legal documents on the protection of monuments from the period under consideration and an assessment of the place of the Ostrogothic renaissance in the history of cultural heritage law. Results. Theodoric's legislation on monument protection is represented mainly by documents contained in The «Variae» of Cassiodorus. These are royal orders addressed to a certain category of subjects or certain officials of the state. The ruler in his acts touches on many issues, both purely practical and conceptual. Objects to be protected are identified, responsible persons are appointed, professional requirements are emphasized, specific methodological advice on restoration works is provided, and liability for damage to monuments is defined. It is interesting to emphasize the priority of maintaining a holistic context over the protection of individual objects. It reached the conclusion about a progressive character and an outstanding significance of the Ostrogothic Renaissance for the safeguarding of classical culture and the formation of modern European civilization. The reflections of the Early Middle Ages, encrypted in the «Variae», are part of the intangible message of classical culture. Communication with this culture is the main resource for the progress of our civilization.

Colonização e educação na Amazônia portuguesa (1500-1757)

Trata da colonização da Amazônia, com foco no aspecto educacional, no período cronológico de 1500 a 1757, abrangendo desde as primeiras expedições ao rio Amazonas até a consolidação de diretrizes para a instrução da população paraense, no século XVIII, tendo por objetivo compreender o vínculo entre a colonização no Estado do Grão-Pará e Maranhão e o processo educacional. Perpassa pela relação entre os religiosos e a educação no Estado do Grão-Pará e Maranhão, unidade administrativa da colônia portuguesa distinta do Brasil, e a transferência das responsabilidades acerca da educação para o Estado, durante o governo de Mendonça Furtado. Analisa, para o traçar dos fatos históricos, as "Instruções regias, publicas e secretas" dirigidas ao governador, assim como o "Directorio" editado por Mendonça Furtado em obediência às ordens reais, caracterizando-se como uma pesquisa histórico-documental. Reflete quanto à imposição de valores da civilização ocidental cristã e da visão eurocêntrica do mundo, tendo como meio de disseminação a educação para a dominação econômica, política e ideológica. Considera, assim, que a instrução ofertada aos gentios, negros e filhos de colonos foi orientada pelo projeto de hegemonia e dominação portuguesa; e que, a partir desses intentos, foi implementado o projeto político-pedagógico que objetivava formar indivíduos que se desconhecessem como membros de um grupo oprimido, estabelecendo-se mecanismos permanentes de obstrução a qualquer tentativa de emergência de um processo pedagógico contrário aos interesses da Coroa e das ordens religiosas.

La condena legal de la homosexualidad masculina en el reino visigodo de Toledo

The objective of this work is to analyze the provisions against male homosexuality, uncommon in 7th century Western society, which came to light in the Visigothic kingdom of Toledo. Following royal orders, two laws and a conciliatory ruling were enacted in which men were severely punished for having sexual relations with other men. We began our study by providing an introductory section where we attempt to reveal how schools of thought, in Imperial Rome, were imposed condemning same-sex carnal relations. Although a more common practice during Late Antiquity, homosexual sex became disgraceful and was condemned.

Gerby rossijskih kavalerov v gerbovnikah datskih korolevskih ordenov

COATS OF ARMS OF RUSSIAN CAVALIERS IN THE COATS OF ARMS OF DANISH ROYAL ORDERS

Land use policies in Nepal: An overview

AbstractLand degradation due to change in land use and land cover (LULC) is one of the most serious global environmental problems. Public policies are important drivers of LULC change and play equally important role in promoting sustained land use. An understanding of the policies framed under different socio‐economic and political conditions and its implications helps refining the policies for sustained land use. This paper discusses the policies, legislative and institutional provisions made by the government for LULC resources, its implications with gaps and constraints for further improvement. Both published and unpublished documents – government policies, legislations, and reports; historical documents such as land grant certificates; articles and books were collected, reviewed, and analyzed covering a period of 409 years. The results show that policies and legislation were guided by different goals in different political and socio‐economic contexts, and have led different pathways. Before 1951, they were guided by royal orders with the goal of exploiting free labour, increasing land tax revenues, and gaining favor from influential people in the government resulting expansion of agricultural areas, deforestation, and reclamation of waste land. After 1951, they were focused on the redistribution of agricultural land. Later in the 1980s and 1990s, the policies were emphasized on conservation and the people's participation. Recently, the concept of land use zoning was introduced. It also shows that there are overlapping of roles and responsibilities of institutions and lack of coordination among government agencies. An effective coordination mechanism among intuitions is crucial for sustained land management.

Authority, autonomy and the first London Bills of Mortality

Publication of population-level data can help balance a government's need for authority with individual residents' practical need for autonomy, even during the chaos and urgency of an epidemic. Starting in the early 16th century, efforts to track the spread of epidemic plague across England and Wales included royal orders to compile weekly, parish-by-parish mortality reports. The City of London devised a novel, quantitative response: rather than producing lists of plague victims, its parishes counted up those who had died of plague and the total number buried that week to yield a local relative frequency of plague deaths. Initially, in keeping with common practices, these data were available only to London's Lord Mayor and aldermen, the sovereign, and the Privy Council. But during the plague of 1592, the City of London's printer posted large-format printed versions of each week's report in public places throughout the City, thus providing free, general access to the week's mortality data. These were the first London Bills of Mortality. Thanks to London's high numeracy rate, many residents could not only read numbers but use tables and interpret ratios. Even those with minimal numeracy could participate in discussions of the data and integrate the results into their lived experience, potentially assessing risks more accurately and making better choices. The fundamental concerns faced by London's government and residents in the 16th century are remarkably similar to those now raised by COVID-19. The broad requirements for and potential advantages of sharing a stream of useful, reliable statistical data with a numerate public also run in parallel.

Ne Tentes aut Perfice: Early Hawaiian Diplomacy in the Southwestern Pacific and the Creation of Hawai‘i’s First Royal Order

Ne Tentes aut Perfice*Early Hawaiian Diplomacy in the Southwestern Pacific and the Creation of Hawai‘i’s First Royal Order Lorenz Gonschor (bio) Introduction In early 1860, King Kamehameha IV granted royal assent to the Order of Arossi, an order “for the reward of those who have materially aided the Social and Political Advancement of any Polynesian Government or People.”1 The monarch thereby created the first Hawaiian royal order, preceding by several years King Kamehameha V’s 1865 creation of the Royal Order of Kamehameha I, which is commonly assumed to be the first such order.2 Unlike the later Hawaiian royal orders created by Kamehameha V and Kalākaua, however, the Order of Arossi—named after a place in the Solomon Islands—was not conceived of in the Hawaiian Islands but thousands of miles away in what was then the British colony of New South Wales, by a group of diplomats representing the Hawaiian Kingdom in Sydney. While none of them were of Hawaiian ancestry, and only one of them would set foot [End Page 55] in Hawai‘i later in his life, the creators of the Order of Arossi played an important role in connecting the Hawaiian Islands not only to the Australian colonies but also to the archipelagos of the Southwestern Pacific. Furthermore, their Sydney office formed the nexus for the spread of the Hawaiian constitution as a model for other island kingdoms to emulate, and their activities, symbolized by the Order of Arossi, also laid the groundwork for Hawai‘i’s pan-Oceanianist foreign policy as it would be espoused especially under the reign of King Kalākaua during the mid-1880s. This article provides a background to the origin of this first Hawaiian Royal Order by highlighting the roles played by Hawai‘i’s diplomatic and consular representatives in the Southwestern Pacific in shaping Hawaiian policy towards Oceania. It will first provide some context of the development of Hawai‘i’s diplomatic and consular network and the individuals involved, with a specific emphasis on the Southwestern Pacific. The article then focuses on the two central figures in this regional diplomatic network, Charles St Julian and Edward Reeve, whose motivations and passions for their work differed from most other consular personnel. Having introduced the main protagonists who conceived of the Order of Arossi, our attention will then turn to the peculiar circumstances of its creation, namely a quite extraordinary story of failed British settler adventurism in the Solomon Islands upon which a Hawaiian connection was later grafted. Continuing the story of the expanding Hawaiian consular network in the Southwestern Pacific during the 1870s and 1880s, it concludes with an assessment of the network’s contributions to the Hawaiian Kingdom’s larger pan-Oceanian policy, including a critical evaluation of the individuals involved. Hawaiian Diplomatic and Consular Representation Abroad In the nineteenth century world order, the Hawaiian Kingdom had a unique status. In 1843 it became the first non-Western nation that received full recognition as an independent state by the Western powers.3 Subsequently, Hawai‘i established equal treaty relations with almost every single Western nation. This made Hawai‘i unique among non-Western nations, as the European powers had not only not colonized [End Page 56] the Islands but recognized them as one of their equals, a status they would deny all other Pacific islands, but also Japan until 1899 and China until as late as the mid-twentieth century.4 Secondly, from the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Hawaiian Islands had become a hub for the trans-Pacific trade between the Americas and Asia. As early as in 1801, French scholar Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu had predicted that Hawai‘i would become the “caravansary of the Pacific”5 and by the time the kingdom started modernizing its political structure in the 1840s during Kamehameha III’s rule, Honolulu had definitely become “a center, rather than a periphery, of the Pacific World.”6 It was in the context of these expanding trade relations that the Hawaiian Kingdom established a wide range of consulates and consular agencies around the world, starting in 1850. The driving...

Struggle of sikhs with mughals under banda singh bahadur

Firm faith and high hope on the one hand and power of resistance and tenacity of purpose on the other, formed the main features of the Sikh character. The first three decades after Aurangzeb's death became more complicated and the Northern provinces were taking full advantage of the weakness of the imperial centre. There were local rising of the Sikhs, the Jats and the other local powers in the region. Mughal authority had become weak and the struggle was basically confined between the Mughals and the Sikhs. Banda, who had come to Punjab as the commander of the forces of the Khalsa, organized the Sikhs and built independent political system and drew principal strength from the zamindars, peasantry and lower classes. He began to plunder in Punjab with five quiver bestowed by Guru and three types of man rallied around him. He made use of both offensive and defensive tactics as circumstances demanded. Banda established his headquarter village Sheri and Khanda. After occupying Sonepat he attacked Kaithal, arrested the Mughals officials then marched towards Samana. Muazzam on his way from Deccan received the news of the Sikhs near Sarhind. Banda plundered Ghuram and Thaska. Through Shahbad he sacked Kunjpura and chose Sadhaura, and its neighbourhood as his base of his operations due to its proximity to Sirmur hills, where he could withdraw whenever the situation so demanded. Sadhaura(Qatalghari) was put to plunder and a number of its inhabitants were killed. Then a battle fought at Chhaparchiri between Wazir Khan and the Sikhs resulted in the massacre of the Mughal army with Wazir Khan and Suchanand and recovered the booty of two crores of rupees and other goods. He became the master of almost the whole of the sarkar Sarhind. A few parganas in Saharanpur sarkar also fell into their hands and made administrative arrangements for the conquered territory. Banda returned to Mukhlispur which he selected as his capital under the name of Lohgarh. On receiving the first news of Sikh outbreak in 1710 Bahadur Shah after settling peace with the Rajput rajas, Ajit Singh and Jai Singh, he turned his attention to them. On the complaints of the inhabitants, Mughal forces were sent again and again to suppress them. On the arrival of the Emperor Bahadur Shah in Punjab Banda Bahadur put him on the defensive. But again the Sikhs barred the road between Delhi and Panipat for many months. When the Emperor reached Sadhuara, the Sikhs had fled towards south and took refuge in the hills. After few attempts Emperor Bahadur Shah sent royal orders to Hindu rajas of Garhwal and Nahan to seige him at any cost but all the efforts to crush Banda Bahadur were failed. On hearing the death of Bahadur Shah, Banda Bahadur made full use of this opportunity took the possession of the town Sadhuara and recaptured the fort of Lohgarh. And immediately after the accession Emperor issued orders to Abdus Samad and other energetic officers in March 1715 to crush the Sikhs. After eight month's struggle Banda Bahadur was captured along with his 740 followers on December 17, 1715. They were first taken to Lahore and then to Delhi in heavy chains by Zakaria Khan and Qamru-din-Khan. At Delhi, they were produced before the Emperor in a procession. The imperial orders were issued and Banda Bahadur along with the other Sikh prisoners was executed on June 9, 1716.

Significance of Translation in Documents of Ancient Iranian Languages

: Based on the existing documents remained from Iranian Languages, the present study aims at investigating the significance of translation through the three historical epochs of Achaemenid, Parthian and Sassanid dynasties in Ancient Persia. The results indicated that the geographical extension of each empire along with existence of variations in population, language and traditions as well as the diversity of economic, social and political relations had made the use of both written and oral translations inevitable for their citizens. Such documents and the historical analyses around them reveal that the majority of translations of the era were the Royal Orders, religious and scientific texts and deeds related to commerce and families to fulfill the requirements and goals of the era. Moreover, some measures taken byShapur I, Shapur II and Khosrow Ito develop translation and interpretation were so vast and influential to be named “the movements of translation”. Studying translation products made in the era also revealed that there existed several languages simultaneously but with different ranks. The results of the present study can be of use to researchers in fields such as history, history of science, archeology, historical linguistics, Iranian studies as well as Iranian Culture and Literature.

Colouristic Analysis of Russian Orders

In addition to the symbolism, compositional laconism and colour palette are important for the visual perception of an order. The combination of colours is the first thing perceived by the human eye. This article offers an analysis, based on colour science and colouristics, of the colours and their combinations used to create orders. The work examines three periods of the Russian order: the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and modern Russia. Gold, silver, platinum, and sometimes copper are used in the manufacture of orders. Each of these metals has its own colour: gold is golden yellow, silver and platinum are of silver-grey colour, and copper is golden pink. The colour of the enamel may be ruby red, white, blue, grey, black and green. All orders are divided into four groups. Orders for which only one colour is used are in the first group. These are orders made of one type of metal without the use of enamel. The second group includes awards to which, in addition to the base metal, enamel or the second metal is added. Orders consisting of three colours are in the third group; orders with four colours or more are in the fourth group. An order which is made using only ruby red enamel can be considered an example of a good and concise combination. The classic combination of the silver-grey metal with red enamel works very well. The yellow colour of the metal matches with the red one, creating a bright festive palette. The same as the combination of the saturated and the neutral, the golden yellow goes well with the silver-grey. In addition to the base metals, such as silver and enamel, gilding is used in other awards. As a rule, red is dominant in such orders; some elements are gilded but the silver-grey colour balances the bright combination of red and golden. The next category of orders with four or more colours can be divided into two subgroups. The first subgroup includes orders with one or two dominant colours whereas orders with four or more colours, distributed relatively evenly, are in the second one. Having analysed the orders of the three historical periods of Russia, the following conclusions can be drawn: the royal orders are more conservative, the most interesting colour combinations are from the Soviet era, the modern awards have largely lost the experience of previous generations.

Lights on the Royal Guard through the Significance of Two Titles Ḫnty-š and Šmsw

The concept of royal protection in ancient Egypt was not only of great significance, but it was a variable, in accordance with the events of the times. The royal guards have an essential role throughout the Egyptian times in the service of the king or in securing them during their daily life work likewise in war but unfortunately, we don't know that much about ancient Egyptian guards. But with a few bits and pieces of information in historical records, like scenes on tomb walls and titles, we can still get an idea of ancient Egyptian guards and their duties. In spite of the large number of titles known from the Old Kingdom, none of these has been made an interpretation of or deciphered to signify 'guard', in the feeling of a person whose obligation was to give security to a man or a place. However it is unfathomable that no such people existed so as to secure the king, the royal family, the top administrators, the palaces, the rich temples, and so forth. While the presence of 'royal guards' would have been important in all periods, it should have been particularly so during the Old Kingdom, when the country did not have a standing armed force or police power to keep up open request. Amid times of inconvenience or potential inconvenience, for example, a change of dynasty or an argument about progression, for instance, the presence and loyalty of the guards would no doubt have been essential.It may assume that the mission of the 'royal guard' in ancient Egypt does not go beyond the idea of 'protection' and that it belongs only to the military side, but by studying and analyzing the functions of the holders of the title of ḫnty-s and smsw, make sure that 'protection' is a function with broad meaning, property protection was not limited only to the person of the King only, but also military and religious and civil institutions. ḫnty-s have had responsibilities related to the Egyptian frontiers. They executed the king's orders and protected funerary property. They also attached to royal mortuary temples, where they performed services for the deceased king. Their responsibility as in guarding, making the king's way, and in attending. They acted as escorts to the king in victory celebrations, military reviews and hunting events. The man who holds the title smsw could perform different tasks .They likewise associated with the working of the two most imperative organizations: the treasury and the granary. Their exercises in the Nubian fortresses involved administrative tasks too. They participated in the mining and paramilitary expeditions, the reward ceremony and in accompanying the royal procession in Tell El Amarna scenes. The smsw show, through the texts of Ramesses II, a significant military strategic role of the royal bodyguard and it was one of their most critical roles.The royal protection including: the protection of the Egyptian borders, funerary temples and participation in the celebrations of victory, military ceremonies, mining campaigns and hunting. In addition the implementation of royal orders, including sending correspondence to the provinces or persons and many other public works in the sites and fortresses. الملخص: إن مفهوم الملکية في مصر القديمة لم يکن ذو أهمية کبيرة فحسب، بل کان متغيرا وفقا لأحداث العصر. ولم تقتصر مهمة الحرس الملکي فى مصر القديمة على المنوطة بالجانب العسکرى فقط، بل إنه بدراسة وتحليل وظائف کل من حاملى لقب Ḫnty-s وsmsw تأکد أن الحماية هى وظيفة ذات مدلول واسع وأن الملکية لم تکن قاصرة فقط على شخص الملک فقط بل على مؤسساته العسکرية والدينية والمدنية أيضا. لقد شغل حاملى لقب Ḫnty-s العديد من الوظائف الخاصة بالحماية الملکية منها: حماية الحدود المصرية والمعابد الجنائزية والمشارکة بالحضور فى الاحتفالات بالنصر والمراسم العسکرية والصيد وتنفيذ الاوامر الملکية ومنها ارسال المراسلات للمقاطعات أو الأشخاص. ومن جانب آخر لعب حاملى لقب smsw دورا استراتيجيا عسکريا هاما کقوات الحرس الملکى الخاص من خلال معارک الملک رمسيس الثانى ويعد ذلک أحد أهم أدوارهم. وارتبط العديد من الوظائف الأدارية لحاملى اللقب بمؤسستين رئيسيتين فى مصر القديمة وهما: الخزانة وصوامع الغلال، بالأضافة إلى دورهم فى المشارکة فى حملات التعدين وأمدادات الجيش والعديد من الأعمال العامة الأخرى فى المواقع والحصون الکلمات الدالة:

“Ea mai Hawai‘inuiākea”: Marking the Global Diplomatic Presence of the Nineteenth-century Hawaiian Kingdom

“Ea mai Hawai‘inuiākea”1: Marking the Global Diplomatic Presence of the Nineteenth-century Hawaiian Kingdom Ronald Williams Jr. (bio) The field of Hawaiian history has witnessed several recent explorations of the Hawaiian Kingdom’s role in international diplomatic affairs of the nineteenth century. A common theme has been the outsized reach, both in breadth and potency, of the relatively diminutive island monarchy. In September 2018, the Honolulu Museum of Art opened a major exhibition entitled, “Ho‘oulu Hawai‘i: The King Kalākaua Era,”2 dedicated to the conception that during the mid-late nineteenth century, “Cosmopolitanism—the idea that local politics share systemic parallels internationally as part of a world citizenry—was a thriving philosophy in the Hawaiian Kingdom.”3 A significant component [End Page 133] of the exhibit was the material culture surrounding Hawaiian Kingdom statecraft, including: an official uniform “decidedly of a distinct national feature;”4 decorative royal orders, both awarded and received; and exquisite jewelry presented to Queen Kapi‘olani and Princess Lili‘uokalani as diplomatic gifts when the two represented the Hawaiian Kingdom at the 1887 Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in London. Several essays within the accompanying catalogue highlight “Hawai‘i’s place in a global society during what was, in Eurocentric terms, the modern era.”5 On 28 November 2018, the Hawai‘i State Archives [HSA] hosted an open house commemorating the 175th anniversary of the 1843 Anglo-French Declaration—an international recognition of the Hawaiian Kingdom as a sovereign and independent nation-state by Great Britain and France. A public lecture on one of Hawai‘i’s first commissioned diplomats, Timoteo Ha‘alilio (1808–1844), was followed by an exhibition displaying primary-source documents and artifacts highlighting Hawaiian Kingdom diplomatic history from 1843–1893. One case offered materials from Hawaiian Kingdom consulates—San Diego, Valparaiso, Antwerp, Pretoria, Hong Kong, and Sydney—located on six of the world’s seven continents. Also in 2018, the Hawaiian Historical Society, as part of its ongoing Public Lecture Series, hosted a research presentation by Tiffany Ing discussing her recent dissertation, “Ka Ho‘omālamalama ‘ana i nā Hō‘ailona o ka Mō‘ī Kalākaua a me kona Noho Ali‘i ‘ana: Illuminating the American, International, and Hawai‘i Representations of David Kalākaua and His Reign, 1874–1891.”6 Ing’s work examines both domestic and foreign representations of the Hawaiian Kingdom’s seventh mō‘ī [monarch] through English and Hawaiianlanguage newspapers; offering a broader evaluation and explanation of the Hawaiian leader’s activities and motivations. As in the aforementioned works, Ing examines the prolific international actions and efforts of the Hawaiian Kingdom and the resultant place afforded the Islands as a co-equal sovereign state in the great family of nations. She explains, “From the outset, then, the mō‘ī [Kalākaua] used well-established diplomatic methods to set up recipocal and symbolic relationships with other world leaders as part of his strategy to assert Hawai‘i’s independence.”7 [End Page 134] As part of a larger book project on the history of Hawaiian Kingdom diplomacy, I have recently sought to compile a complete list of Hawaiian Kingdom consulates and legations abroad from 1843–1893. Several lists have been previously published with varying numbers of cities that number from seventy to around 100—archivist Alice Tran of the Hawai‘i State Archives and I produced a list for the November 2018 open house that contained 117—but all have been decidedly partial. An examination of previously cited sources, along with the voluminous correspondence and diplomatic circular collections at the HSA, produced the list included below—revealing that during the nineteenth century, the Hawaiian Kingdom operated consulates and legations in at least 136 cities on six continents across the globe.8 Note: spellings and names of cities and countries listed reflect those used in the original primary sources. Consulates and Legations of the Hawaiian Kingdom Abroad [1843–1893] 1. Aguilas, Spain 2. Amsterdam, Netherlands 3. Antwerp, Belgium 4. Apemama, Kiribati 5. Apia, Samoa 6. Arecife de Lanzarotte, Canary Islands 7. Astoria, Oregon, USA 8. Auckland, New Zealand 9. Assumption, Paraguay 10. Bangkok, Siam 11. Barcelona, Spain 12. Batavia...

<b>Research on the Spatial Structure of Outer City of Burmese Capital Cities</b>

Mandalay, which is the second largest city in Burma (Myanmar) today, was the last capital city of the Kingdom of Burma. Mandalay was planned and built by King Mindon in the middle of the nineteenth century. This research examines the chronological processes of Mandalay's city planning, based on the Royal Orders of Burma, and revealed the following characterizations of Mandalay: 1) it was based on Buddha's Prophecy; 2) it was intended to be a City of Buddhism; and 3) it followed preceding city models. The characterizations above indicated that there had been a city model unique to Burma, like the well known Ancient India and China models. The research further examined this possible city model for Burma from four viewpoints: 1) structure; 2) orientation: 3) land use; and 4) size. Consequently, a city model unique to the capital cities in Burma was proposed. One of the unique aspects of the Burmese city model is the eastward orientation, which is seen neither in India nor China models.

Tout Fait Maison: A Law Code Crafted by the Eighteenth Century Jewry of Metz

Abstract This inquiry examines Le Recueil des Loix, Coutumes, et Usages Observes par les Juifs de Metz. Evocative of the medieval German Sachsenspiegel, the volume’s detailed regulations supply a rich portrait of a Jewish community in Alsace-Lorraine during the turbulent final decades of the ancien regime. While France evolved during these decades from feudalism to democracy, the Jews transitioned from serfs main-mortables or royal chattels to citizenship. Ideals of the emerging French democracy were imprinted upon the Code Napoleon (1805), a distinctively anti-feudal, secular expression of French citizens’ newfound autonomy. In contrast, the Recueil originated in an act of will on the part of the Jews’ overlords. In accordance with royal orders, it was deposited in the records of the royal court at Metz in about 1742; royal judges and members of the bar consulted the Recueil in all manner of disputes involving Jewish litigants and Jewish law. The Recueil, as the handiwork of eighteenth century Alsatian Jews, was unique in engrafting Jewish law and ethics upon French law of the ancien regime.