Routing In Ad Hoc Networks Research Articles

Hop Count Distribution for Minimum Hop-Count Routing in Finite Ad Hoc Networks

Hop count distribution (HCD), generally formulated as a discrete probability distribution of the hop count, constitutes an attractive tool for performance analysis and algorithm design. This paper devotes to deriving an analytical HCD expression for a finite ad hoc network under the minimum hop-count routing protocols. Formulating the node distribution with binomial point process, the network is provided as a bounded area with all nodes randomly and uniformly distributed. Considering an arbitrary pair of source node (SN) and destination node, an innovative and straightforward definition is presented for HCD. In order to derive HCD out, an original mathematical framework, named as the equivalent area replacement method (EARM), is proposed and verified. Under the EARM, HCD is derived by first considering the special case where SN locates at the network center and then extending to the general case where SN is randomly distributed. For each case, the accuracy of our HCD model is evaluated by simulation comparison. Results show that our model matches well with the simulation results over a wide range of parameters. Particularly, the derived HCD outperforms the existing formulations in terms of the Kullback Leibler divergence, especially when SN is randomly distributed.

Dynamic Virtual Topology Aided Networking and Routing for Aeronautical Ad-Hoc Networks

Aeronautical Ad-hoc Networks (AANETs) have been proposed as the promising complement to terrestrial networks for promoting the global interconnection to provide in-flight network service, emergency communication, vessel traffic service, etc. However, the large network scale of AANETs may induce severe synchronization overhead when the traditional topology-based networking algorithms are adopted. Moreover, the high-dynamic topology and changeable flight routes make the existing position-based routing algorithms suffer loop routing and forwarding failure. Motivated by these problems, this paper aims at developing efficient and low-cost networking and routing algorithms relying on the concept of dynamic virtual topology which organizes the disordered topology of AANETs into a structural and simplified one. The basic idea is that each connected aircraft is assigned with a unique and sequentially increased Virtual Identifier (VID) and thus all the connected aircrafts are organized into a virtual cluster consisting of one trunk and several branches. An event-driven synchronization mechanism is leveraged for maintaining the virtual topology as well as relieving the communication burden imposed by periodical broadcasting. By jointly considering the geographic locations and the virtual locations of aircrafts, we formulate the routing problem in AANETs as a weighted distance minimization problem, and further propose a novel routing algorithm, namely Trunk-Branch Cooperation aided Routing (TBCR) algorithm. Specifically, TBCR employs the geographic greedy forwarding strategy for enhancing its flexibility and boosts the routing efficiency by adopting the loop-free virtual topology based local forwarding. For extending the networking and routing algorithms to the global range, a multi-domain routing solution is also provided. Extensive experimental results show that the proposed Virtual Topology based Networking (VTN) cooperated with TBCR can reduce at least 30% average end-to-end transmission delay in large-scale AANETs and provide more than 90% lower synchronization overhead than the existing solutions.

Software-Defined Networks and Named Data Networks in Vehicular Ad Hoc Network Routing: Comparative Study and Future Directions

Routing protocols are an essential component of vehicular ad hoc networks. Software-defined networks and name data networks are new aspects of routing that are coming to the fore as Vehicular Ad Hoc Network technology evolves. Data Network-based VANET routing protocols and Software Defined Network-based VANET routing protocols have been developed in recent research. These newly developed protocols must be part of VANET routing protocol surveys. The taxonomy of traditional routing protocols must take these innovations into account. To the best of our knowledge, no such taxonomy exists at the moment. We present a new taxonomy of routing protocols based on the additional routing aspects of Software-Defined Networks and Named Data Networks. All traditional routing protocols are kept in a single category. This research work aims to update the existing taxonomy of routing protocols with the newly adopted aspects of research in routing. Advanced routing schemes are selected for the survey from each category to evaluate new research results in VANET routing. This article also describes future directions for VANET/ITS routing research.

Design and development of anonymous location based routing for mobile ad-hoc network

Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) consists of wireless nodes interacting with each other impulsively over the air. MANET network is dynamic in nature because of which there is high risk in security. In MANET keeping node and routing secure is main task. Many proposed methods have tried to clear this issue but unable to fully resolve. The proposed method has strong secure anonymous location based routing (S2ALBR) method for MANET using optimal partitioning and trust inference model. Here initially partitions of network is done into sectors by using optimal tug of war (OTW) algorithm and compute the trustiness of every node by parameters received signal strength, mobility, path loss and co-operation rate. The process of trust computation is optimized by the optimal decided trust inference (ODTI) model, which provides the trustiness of each node, highest trust owned node is done in each sector and intermediate nodes used for transmission. The proposed method is focusing towards optimization with respect to parameter such as energy, delay, network lifetime, and throughput also above parameter is compared with the existing methods like anonymous location-based efficient routing protocol (ALERT), anonymous location-aided routing in suspicious MANET (ALARM) and authenticated anonymous secure routing (AASR).

Enhanced UAV-aided vehicular delay tolerant network (VDTN) routing for urban environment using a bio-inspired approach

The evolution of VDTN routing came to solve the problem of routing in sparse Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs). Recently, the implication of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in VANET communication has gathered quicker information dissemination than Roadside Units (RSUs) in urban VANETs, where ground vehicles’ mobility is restricted by the topology of city roads. Gradually, UAVs are emerging for VDTNs: UAV-aided VDTN (UVDTN) routing field has been introduced for sparse areas in order to reduce the network gaps between Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) connections. Meanwhile, the conventional UVDTN routing protocols expose the short contact opportunity time in the case of Vehicle-to-UAV (V2U) and UAV-to-Vehicle (U2V) connections. This constraint entails more congested bundles’ flooding rates and a higher number of lost bundle copies compared to V2V-based forwarding. In this paper, a bio-inspired UVDTN routing protocol is conceived to improve the bundles’ forwarding between ground vehicles and UAVs in terms of flooding optimization and Quality-of-Service (QoS) performances for urban VANET environments. For this purpose, a swarm-inspired approach called the Social Spider Optimization (SSO) is proposed. SSO seeks to find a better selection of next Store-Carry-and-Forward (SCF) relay nodes specifically for V2U and U2V connections. In order to control the bundle replication rate and enhance bundles’ delivery ratio and delay, the proposed bio-inspired UVDTN protocol adjusts the SCF selection decision. The latter is based on predefined historical knowledge-based forwarding parameters and urban geographic topology information. The proposed bio-inspired routing protocol is simulated using the Opportunistic Network Environment (ONE) simulator and compared to a few VDTN and UVDTN routing protocols.

A Secure Approach to Autonomous Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks Using Superman Technique

Abstract: Mobile Ad-hoc Networks or MANETs are mostly found where any fixed facilities are not available and so it is dynamic. Secure transmission of data is an important aspect in MANET. They have unique characteristics like dynamic topology, wireless radio medium and lack of centralized administration. As a result they are vulnerable to different types of attacks in different layers of protocol. To protect these networks, various security protocols have been developed. To address these issues, a framework called Security Using Pre-Existing Routing for Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (SUPERMAN) [ 1 ] is proposed. This paper presents a security framework SUPERMAN which enables data confidentiality and prevention of data loss by using AES encryption. And a report is generated at the destination side to view user details, path details and attack node details. Keywords: mobile ad hoc networks, node authentication, data confidentiality.

SIMULATION AND COMPARISON OF AD HOC NETWORKS ROUTING PROTOCOLS BASED ON OPNET

Ad-hoc routing algorithm has always been a core problem in research of ad-hoc networks. In order to be able to deal with various routing protocol problems on an ad-hoc network like poor validity and large control overhead, this paper classify and compare ad-hoc network routing protocols through OPNET simulation tool and focus on testing two routing protocols' performance namely, table-driven and on-demand routing protocol. The Destination Sequenced Distance Vector routing protocol is the most used table-driven routing protocols, While AODV and DSR routing protocols are the two most used on-demand routing protocols. The performance of these three protocols is simulated with a variety of packet delivery functions, average end-to-end delays, and routing loads. These protocols are also analyzed and compared. The simulation results show that for a high mobility environment, the on-demand routing protocol is the best option.

A Driving Path Based Opportunistic Routing in Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks is a promising technologythat can widely apply to monitor the physical world in urban areas.Efficient data delivery is important in these networks and optimalroute selection is vital to improve this factor. Vehicular mobility isa reflection of human social activity and human trajectories show ahigh degree of temporal and spatial regularity. Therefore, vehiculardriving paths are predictable in a large extent. A new opportunisticrouting protocol (DPOR) is proposed in this study that uses drivingpath predictability and vehicular distribution in its route selectionprocedure. This protocol is composed of two phases: intersectionand next hop selection phases. A utility function is calculated toselect the next intersection and a new mechanism is also proposedfor the next hop selection phase. Simulation results show thatDPOR achieves high delivery ratio and low end-to-end delay in thenetwork.

A Novel Approach to Support Scalable Multicast Routing in Wireless Ad Hoc Networks

Nowadays, group communications over Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) have received significant attention. Multicasting plays an important role in simultaneous delivery of information to group of receivers. Thus, it is necessary to design efficient and effective multicast routing protocol to support group communication applications. Several efforts have been put to improve multicast routing. However, they do not consider scalability issue. This paper introduces a a novel Scalable Geographic Multicast Routing Protocol (SGMRP). The main objective of this protocol is to design a lightweight scalable multicast routing scheme irrespective of the number of multicast members and network size. To achieve this, a virtual clustering strategy has been introduced. This strategy based on partitioning the network into sectorial zones. The proposed solution performs efficient packet forwarding with reduced communication overhead. The proposed scheme eliminates the duplicate packets between clusters and reduces the number of participating nodes

Extended buffer zone algorithm to reduce rerouting time in biotelemetry systems using sensing

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) routing methods must deal with connection breakdowns caused by frequent node movement, measurement and a dynamic network topology. In these cases, the protocol must discover alternate routes. Rerouting time refers to the lag that happens during this retransmission. Researchers have proposed many ways to reduce rerouting period. One such technique is buffer zone routing (BZR), which divides a node transmission region into a safe zone adjacent to the node and a hazardous zone towards the end of the broadcast range. This technique, however, has rare gaps and restrictions, such as the ideal dimensions of the buffer zone, a rise in hop duration, network stress, and so on. This study offers a method to improve or expand buffer zone communication by grouping nodes inside the buffer zone into virtual zones based on their energy flat. When the routing decisions are made quickly, the energy consumption of the nodes is minimized. In the safe area of extended BZR, transfer time is reduced, and routing efficiency is increased. It solves issues in the present algorithm and fills holes in it, decreasing the time required for rerouting in MANET.

A novel congestion control approach for optimal routing in Wireless Adhoc Networks

SummaryCongestion is a demanding issue in WANET owing to dynamic routing and resource constraints. Congestion controlling (CC) is a huge concern in attaining equality among e2e flow control and optimal utilization of network resources. In WANET, with distributed resources, if numerous senders compete for a similar bandwidth link, the data rates should be adjusted to avoid network overload that leads to compromises in QoS. This paper introduces a new routing approach with CC model that deployed MAODV for WANETs. Initially, the destination and source nodes are initialized, and subsequently, the MAODV find out the various routing path. Consequently, SGD‐DLNN recognizes all nodes' congestion status in revealed paths. Further, the MAODV assigns traffic in optimal congestion‐less paths if congestion occurs. Here, the black widow‐mutated cat swarm (BWM‐CS) model is deployed to choose the optimal paths based on traffic load density, life span of path, traffic load, remaining energy, link cost, and path distance. Eventually, the advantage of the suggested model is proven.

Deep-Learning-Aided Packet Routing in Aeronautical Ad Hoc Networks Relying on Real Flight Data: From Single-Objective to Near-Pareto Multiobjective Optimization

Data packet routing in aeronautical ad-hoc networks (AANETs) is challenging due to their high-dynamic topology. In this paper, we invoke deep learning (DL) to assist routing in AANETs. We set out from the single objective of minimizing the end-to-end (E2E) delay. Specifically, a deep neural network (DNN) is conceived for mapping the local geographic information observed by the forwarding node into the information required for determining the optimal next hop. The DNN is trained by exploiting the regular mobility pattern of commercial passenger airplanes from historical flight data. After training, the DNN is stored by each airplane for assisting their routing decisions during flight relying solely on local geographic information. Furthermore, we extend the DL-aided routing algorithm to a multi-objective scenario, where we aim for simultaneously minimizing the delay, maximizing the path capacity, and maximizing the path lifetime. Our simulation results based on real flight data show that the proposed DL-aided routing outperforms existing position-based routing protocols in terms of its E2E delay, path capacity as well as path lifetime, and it is capable of approaching the Pareto front that is obtained using global link information.

Secure Routing in Multihop Ad-Hoc Networks With SRR-Based Reinforcement Learning

In this letter, a reinforcement learning-assisted secure routing methodology is proposed for multihop ad-hoc networks in the presence of multiple eavesdroppers. Specifically, secure relay region (SRR) is firstly proposed, which depicts the distribution of the relays forwarding the information securely. Moreover, a SRR-based on-policy Monte Carlo methodology is derived, aiming at accelerating the convergence of routing. The secrecy connection probability is also calculated, which indicates the secure performance of different routes. Simulation results show that our proposed SRR-based reinforcement learning methodology can select the secure route efficiently and fast, which is also robust to the time-varying available relays.

Plane-separated routing in ad-hoc networks

Control and user (data) plane separation (CUPS) is a concept applied in various networking areas to scale network resources independently, increase the quality of service, and facilitate the autonomy of networks. In this study, we leverage this concept to design a plane-separated routing algorithm, CUPS-based hierarchical routing algorithm (CHRA), as an energy-efficient and low-latency end-to-end communication scheme for clustered ad-hoc networks. In CHRA, while cluster heads constitute the control plane to conduct network discovery and routing, ordinary nodes residing in the user plane forward packets according to the routing decisions taken by the control plane. Exploiting the CUPS, we avoid exhausting cluster heads by offloading packet-forwarding to ordinary nodes and improve the quality of service by utilizing alternative paths other than the backbone of cluster heads. Our simulation results show that CHRA offers a better quality of service in terms of end-to-end latency and data-to-all ratio, and promotes fairness in energy-consumption in both stationary and mobile scenarios.

A Security Assessment Framework for Routing and Authentication Protocols of Mobile Ad-hoc Networks

Security assessment of routing and authentication protocols is based on the comparison of basic and secured versions of protocols such as AODV, SAODV, DSDV, SEAD, ZRP, SRP, LHAP, HEAP etc. In this paper, a framework for security assessment is presented. It is a complete system that attempts to provide the promised services to each user or application. To assess the security of different protocols, a security index is assigned. The value of security index shows how much a protocol is secured. To assign the security index, security parameters have been found out and the performance of different protocols have been analyzed under normal condition, Black Hole attack, Wormhole attack, and DoS attack.

Effects of Wormhole Attack on Routing Topology

The article is devoted to investigating the effects of wormhole attack on routing topology in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Currently, WSNs are increasingly vulnerable to numerous security attacks. One of the major attacks affecting WSNs involves a wormhole attack where attackers receive packets at a single end in the network and tunnel the packets to other points in the network and are subsequently replayed in the network. The wormhole attacks can affect the routing topology by redirecting traffic. Because of the nature of WNSs, attackers can develop a wormhole for packets not destined for them due to overhearing them within the wireless network and tunneling them to colluding attackers on the opposite side of the wormhole. Mainly, wormhole attacks are hazardous to ad-hoc network routing protocols. Therefore, it is evident that routing topology suffers from various vulnerabilities and needs robust security measures. This research investigates the effects of wormhole attacks on routing topology, and a simulation is presented to depict wormhole attack effects. In addition, an analysis of whormhole simulation of packet transmission with and without attacker node using Network Simulator NS-2 environment has been carried out. A simulation conducted using NS2 determined the performance of two reactive routing protocols (AODV and DSR) using their throughput, the first and the last packet received, and the total amount of bytes received in two conditions (with and without wormhole). Findings obtained demonstrate that the performance of DSR was better compared to that of AODV. The introduction of wormhole attacks in both routing protocols significantly affected the performance.

An adaptive multi-hop routing with IoT abstraction for minimizing delay-node capacity trade-offs in mobile ad-hoc network

<span>Delay and node capacity are incompatible mobile ad hoc constraints because of the network's versatility and self-disciplined design. </span><span>It is a challenging problem to maximize the trade-off between the above mobility correlation factors. </span><span>This manuscript proposes an adaptive multi-hop routing (A.M.R.) for mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) to minimize the trade-off by integrating the internet of things (IoT). IoT nodes' smart computing and offloading abilities are extended to ad-hoc nodes to improve routing and transmission. Dor MANET nodes in route exploration, neighbor selection, and data transmission, the beneficial features of IoT include enhanced decision making. The traditional routing protocols use IoT at the time of the neighbor discovery process in updating the routing table and localization. </span><span>The harmonizing technologies with their extended support improve the performance of MANETs has been estimated. The proposed method achieves better throughput (14.16 Mbps), delay (0.118), packet drop (126), and overhead (36 packets) when compared to existing methods.</span>

Scalable Deep Reinforcement Learning for Routing and Spectrum Access in Physical Layer

This paper proposes a novel scalable reinforcement learning approach for simultaneous routing and spectrum access in wireless ad-hoc networks. In most previous works on reinforcement learning for network optimization, the network topology is assumed to be fixed, and a different agent is trained for each transmission node—this limits scalability and generalizability. Further, routing and spectrum access are typically treated as separate tasks. Moreover, the optimization objective is usually a cumulative metric along the route, e.g., number of hops or delay. In this paper, we account for the physical-layer signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) in a wireless network and further show that <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">bottleneck</i> objective such as the minimum SINR along the route can also be optimized effectively using reinforcement learning. Specifically, we propose a scalable approach in which a single agent is associated with each flow and makes routing and spectrum access decisions as it moves along the frontier nodes. The agent is trained according to the physical-layer characteristics of the environment using a novel rewarding scheme based on the Monte Carlo estimation of the future bottleneck SINR. It learns to avoid interference by intelligently making joint routing and spectrum allocation decisions based on the geographical location information of the neighbouring nodes.

Intelligent Fish Swarm Inspired Protocol (IFSIP) For Dynamic Ideal Routing in Cognitive Radio Ad-Hoc Networks

Intelligent Fish Swarm Inspired Protocol (IFSIP) For Dynamic Ideal Routing in Cognitive Radio Ad-Hoc Networks

Analysing admission control for AODV and DSR routing protocol in mobile ad-hoc network

The widespread deployment of mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) in the areas of agriculture, military defence, weather forecasting and disaster control has necessitated the implementation of admission control within a network for a guaranteed quality of service (QoS). Admission control organises traffic flows to ensure the network medium is fairly shared among various nodes in the network. Various admission control algorithms have been proposed in the literature, using different metrics and parameters to achieve different admission control quality. In this work, we propose an Admission control in mobile ad-hoc network routing (ACMANR) using both bandwidth capacity and resource estimation to achieve a good QoS. Furthermore, we analyse the behaviour of two well-known routing protocols in wireless network, ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) and dynamic source routing (DSR), in our proposed admission control algorithm. Simulation results obtained from our proposed admission control algorithm using OPNET show that AODV routing protocol had a better throughput while DSR produced a better delay with lower overhead in MANET. Our proposed approach also shows better performance in terms of throughput and delay when compared with the state-of-the-art admission control routing using AODV and DSR.