Consistency Of Routines Research Articles

The power of routines: Impact of parent-grandparent coparenting relationship quality on post-lockdown child adjustment over the COVID-19 pandemic in China

Child routines and coparenting relationships are respectively recognized in past literature as valid predictors of child adjustment, representing structured daily living and source of support in children’s lives. Under the difficult times of the COVID-19 pandemic, established family processes were shaken by social and mental challenges, which lacked relevant literature regarding the working mechanism in the Chinese cultural context, where parent-grandparent coparenting families commonly reside. The current longitudinal study explores the role of child routines in the effect of mother-grandmother coparenting relationship quality on child adjustment over the period of the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. The study collected data from 163 mother-grandmother coparenting families before, during, and after the pandemic lockdown in Beijing, China, in a one-year span. The results showed that the consistency of child routines during the pandemic mediated the effect of mothers’ perceived coparenting relationship quality before the pandemic on child social competence after the lockdown, but not on child behavioral and emotional problems. Grandmother’s perceived coparenting relationship quality before the pandemic negatively predicted behavioral and emotional problems after the lockdown, while no indirect effects were found. The current study reiterates the critical role of routine maintenance in the coparenting context on child social-emotional development, particularly when other parts of daily lives were disturbed. Also, separately examining mothers’ and grandmothers’ perceived coparenting relationship quality validates the idea that caregivers played different roles in the family, resulting in disparities in child development mechanisms.

Direct and Indirect Contributions of Child Temperament, Parenting Stress, and Bedtime Routines to Children’s Sleep Behaviors During the Covid-19 Pandemic

ABSTRACT The current study examined the direct and indirect contributions of children’s temperament (reactivity, persistence, and rhythmicity), parenting stress, and bedtime routines to Turkish children’s sleep behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic. The sample was 313 mothers of children between 16 and 84 months (M = 52.42, SD = 12.36). Mothers reported their children’s sleep behaviours, children’s bedtime routines, parenting stress, and children’s temperament. Multivariate path analyses were run to test the direct and indirect effects. Results indicated that parenting stress was negatively related to children’s sleep behaviours. Further, it was found that consistency of bedtime routine environments was positively associated with children’s sleep behaviours. For the indirect associations, children’s temperament (rhythmicity and reactivity) was indirectly associated with children’s sleep behaviours via the consistency of bedtime routines. Findings underline the importance of child temperament, parenting stress, and bedtime routines for children’s sleep behaviours. The implications of the findings are discussed in light of previous research and the Bioecological model of human development in considering their functioning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Design and Development of MASTR: A classroom Mobile Assistance Supervision Tool and Reporting for Teachers

Classroom routines are the fundamental basis of classroom management. Consistency of routines is one strategy for effective and efficient classroom management. This study aimed to develop and design a classroom Mobile Assistance Supervision Tool and Reporting for Teachers (MASTR) using an integration of the Modified Feature Development and Task-Centered User Interface Design approaches. It has four phases: identification, requirement gathering, design and development, which uses heuristics and walkthrough evaluations that produced two iterations, and usability testing. Using the heuristics and walkthrough evaluations led to an 87.62 usability rating. MASTR is an offline, Android-based application to aid effective and efficient classroom management.

Bedtime routines, development, and caregiver educational attainment in toddlerhood

BackgroundImplementing a consistent bedtime routine is an empirically supported intervention to improve sleep in toddlers, but little is known about its association with social-emotional outcomes, and among children living in lower socioeconomic status (SES) contexts.ObjectiveThis study examined the longitudinal associations between bedtime routines, social-emotional development, and caregiver educational attainment in toddlers presenting to primary care.MethodCaregivers of 40 toddlers (Mage = 12.85 months, 57.5% female, 62.5% Black/African American) completed questionnaires on sociodemographic factors and child bedtime routine consistency at their 12-month well visit. At the 15- and 24-month well visits, data were collected on child bedtime routine consistency and social-emotional development, including the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) for social-emotional problems and competency and the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (3rd edition; ASQ-3) to assess communication and personal-social skills.ResultsOverall, the majority of families engaged in a consistent bedtime routine (≥5 nights/week) at all time points (63% at 12 months, 75% at 15 months, and 86% at 24 months). Controlling for concurrent bedtime routine consistency, toddlers with a more consistent bedtime routine at 12 months exhibited less dysregulation at age 15 months. Toddlers without a consistent bedtime routine at 15 months exhibited more externalizing and internalizing problems and dysregulation at 24 months. Furthermore, there was a significant interaction between bedtime routine consistency at 15 months and caregiver education for internalizing problems at 24 months, such that toddlers of caregivers with a high school education or less who lacked a consistent bedtime routine showed the most internalizing problems.ConclusionClinicians should consider recommending that families with toddlers incorporate a nightly bedtime routine not only to improve overall sleep health, but also to potentially optimize toddlers' positive social-emotional and behavioral trajectories, especially in families with lower educational attainment.

0124 The influence of the family environment on children’s sleep during the school year and summer

Abstract Introduction More than a third of US children do not receive adequate sleep. Earlier bedtimes, consistent bedtime routines, and good sleep hygiene help to support more adequate sleep. Our previous work has shown that during summer, 5-8-year-old children go to bed later and obtain less sleep compared to the school year. We hypothesized that school year-summer differences in the family environment would explain differences in children’s sleep timing during these periods. Methods During the school year and summer, 119 parents of 5–8-year-olds completed measures of child temperament, sleep hygiene, parenting practices, and parent stress and social support. Child sleep was measured for 8 days using wrist actigraphs. Sleep onset and offset were determined using the Sadeh algorithm and sleep diaries to determine sleep midpoint. Paired samples t-tests examined school year-summer differences in family environment variables and stepwise linear regression analyses were used to examine the effect of the family environment on sleep midpoint, controlling for age, gender, chronotype, and sleep duration. Results Compared to the school year, during summer parents reported less parent-child conflict before bed (t(117)=3.913, p<.001), less consistent bedtime routines (t(117)=4.808, p<.001), and average daily screen use (t(117)=-2.756, p=.007) and greater child surgency or impulsivity (t(108)=-2.960, p=.004. Overall, our model explained 48% of the variance in children’s sleep timing during the school year (p=<.001) and 45% during the summer (p=<.001). In the final model, greater caffeine intake (β=2.1, p=.033), later chronotype (β=0.4, p=<.001) and greater effortful control or self-regulatory skills (β=0.2, p=.047) predicted having a later sleep midpoint during the school year. During the summer, less consistent bedtime routines and later chronotype (β=0.3, p=.002) predicted having a later sleep midpoint (β=-0.2, p=.022). Conclusion The relaxed nature of the summer family environment likely contributes to decreased conflict over bedtime, increased child media use, and decreased bedtime routine consistency. However, only decreases in bedtime routine consistency contributed to later bedtimes during summer. Worryingly, 5-8-year-olds appear to be using caffeine during the school year contributing to later sleep timing. Addressing summer bedtime routines and children’s school-year caffeine intake are important targets for intervention to improve children’s sleep. Support (if any) Texas Children's Pediatric Pilot Award

0183 Bedtime Routine Stability in the Context of Developmental Risk

Abstract Introduction Consistent bedtime routines are an important promoter of child sleep health. This is particularly true for children developing at elevated risk for sleep and developmental challenges. Consistent and calming bedtime routines are associated with fewer parent-reported night wakings, shorter sleep onset times, and (for some) longer nighttime sleep bouts. However, few studies systematically address bedtime consistency within the context of developmental risk. To inform future sleep promotion in children with developmental concerns, this study assessed bedtime routine consistency. Methods Across two video-recorded bedtimes, this study assessed the consistency of routines for children (n = 40) with social communication concerns from ages 8-61 months, M(SD)= 28.14(11.76). Each child was enrolled in an eight-session Family Routines Intervention (FRI). The goals of this intervention were to improve family social communication scaffolding within family routines. Bedtime routines were coded for caregiver involvement, sleep onset location, and dyad actions. Results Mothers were the most common bedtime caregiver (93-95%) and her involvement was consistent for most children (96%). Father involvement was less common (present for 25-38% of recordings) and was less consistent at 56%. Other caregivers were present for roughly 18% of dyads, but their involvement was not as consistent (13%). Sleep onset location varied widely with only 33-38% sleeping in a crib, yet crib placement was moderately consistent (64%). Roughly 20% of children slept in an adult bed, with similar consistency (63%). Book reading was the most common (40-43%) and consistent (73%) bedtime action. Bedtime media use was uncommon (8-15%) but surprisingly consistent (44%). Conclusion For children at elevated risk for sleep and developmental concerns, bedtime routines were notably diverse and inconsistent. Although bedtime routines were not the focus of the FRI study, it afforded a unique opportunity to objectively assess how families prepare their child for bed on distinct nights across a relatively short time (8-12 weeks). Not surprisingly, mothers were the primary caregiver, highlighting her potential role in future interventions. The variability in sleep onset location and bedtime actions were notable. These areas reflect clear targets for future interventions designed to promote relatively short, calming, and consistent bedtime routines. Support (if any) Purdue Research Foundation and the Gadomski Foundation

Factors associated with consistent bedtime routines and good sleep outcomes

ABSTRACT Bedtime routines have “strong” support for addressing bedtime behavior problems and sleep; however, little research has examined factors associated with bedtime routines and sleep quality. Parents of 155 children ages 3 to 5 were surveyed about their children’s bedtime routines, bedtime anxiety, compliance, and sleep quality. Regression models supported a simple indirect effect of bedtime routine consistency on sleep quality through bedtime anxiety, but not through compliance at bedtime. In a serial model, consistent bedtime routines were related to sleep quality through first bedtime anxiety and then compliance near bedtime. Clinically, results suggest that if parents can alleviate child anxiety around bedtime through routines, compliance around bedtime, and a good night sleep may follow.

Parenting Practices, Bedtime Routines, and Consistency: Associations with Pediatric Sleep Problems.

Investigate the direct and moderating effects of daytime parenting practices on the relationship between bedtime routines and pediatric sleep problems. A community sample of 407 parents with children 2-10 years old completed measures of parenting practices (i.e., laxness and over-reactivity) and bedtime routines (i.e., consistency and reactivity to changes in routines). Sleep problems (i.e., severity and signaled night waking) were assessed by a parent-report questionnaire and sleep diaries. Higher parenting laxness (β = .13) and less bedtime routine consistency (β = -.34) significantly predicted sleep problem severity. Laxness moderated the relationship between bedtime reactivity and sleep problem severity: when bedtime reactivity was high, higher parental laxness was associated with more severe sleep problems. Daytime parenting practices are important to consider when children are reactive to changes in bedtime routines, as permissive or inconsistent daytime parenting practices were found to be associated with more severe sleep problems. Future research should examine the effects of parenting practices and bedtime routines on problematic signaled night waking in a clinical sample of children.

Facilitating Exercise Habit Formation among Cardiac Rehabilitation Patients: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial.

Background: The importance of promoting exercise adherence among individuals with acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is imperative. However, challenges in maintaining behavior among ACS patients are also well-documented. Emerging findings in the general population have supported the use of habit-formation techniques, which include incorporating routine consistency and cues, to be effective for facilitating exercise behavior. The effectiveness of habit formation approaches, however, has not been tested on participants with ACS. The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of facilitating physical activity habits among patients with ACS in a two-arm, parallel design, randomized controlled pilot trial. Methods: Participants (n = 13) were older adult patients (M age = 64.20, SD = 5.35) with ACS who were referred to a cardiac rehabilitation center. The experimental group attended monthly group meetings from months 1–3 and received phone call follow-ups from months 4–6. Conclusions: The experimental group showed an increase in weekly moderate-to-vigorous level physical activity, M = 228.20 mins (SD = 112.45), compared with the control group, M = 151.17 (SD = 112.22), d = 0.61. The experimental condition also showed greater use of routine consistency (experimental: M = 4.60 (SD = 0.548); control: M = 3.76 (SD = 1.62)) and cue usage (experimental: M = 3.60 (SD = 0.471); control: M= 2.60 (SD = 0.398)) over the control condition at the six-month mark. The study supports the effectiveness of habit-building techniques among patients with ACS, with effect sizes ranging from a medium to large magnitude. Findings from this pilot study support a full clinical trial with larger sample size.

The Art of Detecting Forwarding Detours

The full Internet feed, reaching ~867K prefixes as of March 2021, has been growing at ≈50K prefixes/year over the last 10 years. To counterbalance this sustained increase, Autonomous Systems (ASes) may filter prefixes, perform prefix aggregation and use default routes. Despite being effective, such workarounds may result in routing inconsistencies, i.e., in routers along a forwarding route mapping the same IP addresses to different IP prefixes. In turn, the exit AS border routers associated with these distinct prefixes may potentially differ. For some prefixes, forwarding detours (FDs) may occur, i.e., traffic may deviate from best IGP paths. In this work we investigate the phenomenon of FDs and derive a methodology to detect them. In particular, our tool is able to pinpoint cases where multiple prefixes are subject to FDs. We run measurements from 100 vantage points of the NLNOG RING monitoring infrastructure and find FDs in 25 out of 54 ASes. We see that FDs are heterogeneous, i.e., the number of prefixes and AS border routers in between which we detect FDs strongly depend on the studied AS. Finally, we discover a remarkable binary effect such that either all transit traffic traversing between two border routers of an AS detours, or none does.

Bedtimes, bedtime routines, and children's sleep across the first 2 years of life.

The first objective of this study was to determine whether establishing bedtime routines in the first year of life predicts better sleep outcomes (i.e. longer sleep duration, less nighttime waking, earlier bedtime, shorter sleep latency, fewer sleep problems) across the first 2 years of life. The second objective was to determine whether specific adaptive bedtime activities (e.g. book reading) were associated with sleep outcomes. The third objective was to describe changes in adaptive bedtime activities (hug/kiss caregiver, say goodnight to family) across the first 2 years of life. Parents of 468 children from the STRONG Kids 2 birth cohort were surveyed about bedtime and bedtime routines, their child's sleep duration, nighttime waking, sleep latency, and sleep problems at 3, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. Cross-lagged panel models revealed partial evidence for reciprocal associations between bedtime routine consistency and adaptive bedtime activities and better sleep outcomes over time. Specifically, more bedtime routine consistency predicted less nighttime waking and sleep problems, and more bedtime adaptive activities predicted longer sleep duration and fewer sleep problems. The findings are discussed from a developmental perspective to highlight how consistency of bedtime routines established as early as 3 months of age may affect sleep outcomes and that the adaptive activities associated with these routines may increase in frequency over the first 2 years of life.

The Family Context of Toddler Sleep: Routines, Sleep Environment, and Emotional Security Induction in the Hour before Bedtime

ABSTRACT Family processes during the pre-bedtime period likely have a crucial influence on toddler sleep, but relatively little previous research has focused on family process in this context. The current study examined several aspects of family process during the pre-bedtime period, including the use of bedtime routines, the qualities of the child’s home sleep environment, and the promotion of child emotional security, in families of 30-month-old toddlers (N= 546; 265 female) who were part of a multi-site longitudinal study of toddler development. These characteristics were quantified using a combination of parent- and observer-reports and examined in association with child sleep using correlation and multiple regression. Child sleep was assessed using actigraphy to measure sleep duration, timing, variability, activity, and latency. Bedtime routines were examined using parents’ daily records. Home sleep environment and emotional security induction were quantified based on observer ratings and in-home observation notes, respectively. All three measures of pre-bedtime context (i.e., bedtime routine inconsistency, poor quality sleep environments, and emotional security induction) were correlated with various aspects of child sleep (significant correlations:.11-.22). The most robust associations occurred between the pre-bedtime context measures and sleep timing (i.e., the timing of the child’s sleep schedule) and variability (i.e., night to night variability in sleep timing and duration). Pre-bedtime variables, including bedtime routine consistency, home sleep environment quality, and positive emotional security induction, also mediated the association between family socioeconomic status and child sleep. Our findings underscore the value of considering family context when examining individual differences in child sleep.

Effects of Coparenting Quality, Stress, and Sleep Parenting on Sleep and Obesity Among Latinx Children: A Path Analysis.

We sought to examine the associations among parent-level constructs, sleep-related parenting practices, and child sleep in Latinx families. A quantitative study was conducted with 101 Latinx parents of children aged 2-5 years. Key variables that were examined included parental stress, coparenting quality, bedtime routine consistency, parent-child sleep interactions, and child's sleep duration. Path analysis results indicated that (1) parent stress had a direct effect on child sleep duration (p =.005) and was mediated by parent-child sleep interactions (p =.021); (2) coparenting quality had a direct effect on child sleep duration (p =.001) and was mediated by bedtime routine consistency (p =.010); and (3) bedtime routine consistency had an indirect effect on child body mass index percentile and was mediated by sleep duration (p =.049). Coparenting quality and parental stress may be important constructs to consider when designing interventions to improve Latinx child sleep duration.

Vulnerable and Resilient: Legal Status, Sources of Support, Maternal Knowledge, and the Family Routines of Mexican and Central American-origin Mothers in Los Angeles

How do unauthorized immigrant parents promote family functioning to navigate challenging conditions and contexts in the United States? This article offers the first quantitative analyses contrasting the family organization and maternal knowledge of Mexican and Central-American immigrant mothers by legal status. Using Los Angeles Family and Neighborhood Survey data with a sample of mothers of school-aged children, the analyses investigate whether mothers’ documentation status, origin country/region, and access to social and instrumental support are associated with the frequency of family dinners, the consistency of family routines, and the knowledge of their child’s associations and friendships. Relative to their US-born and documented Mexican immigrant counterparts, undocumented Mexican immigrant mothers have as many or more frequent family dinners, more predictable family routines, and the same level of knowledge about whom their child is with when not at home. Whom mothers can rely on for emergency childcare and financial support also is linked with both family organization and levels of maternal knowledge about their child. More quantitative research is needed about how undocumented immigrant parents actively employ different family functioning strategies to promote strengths and resiliency in their lives in the midst of challenging contexts driven by lack of legal status.

Consistency of Family Rules and Routines as a Predictor of Food Neophobia in a Diverse Sample of Young Children

Abstract Date Presented 03/26/20 This preliminary data analysis identifies a parent-empowerment strategy that may be important for encouraging children to try new foods. Parents who reported having clear rules and routines for their family demonstrated approximately nine times greater odds that their child would willingly try new foods. Educating parents to emphasize clear rules and routines, specifically during mealtimes, may create a predictable mealtime experience and allow children to feel comfortable exploring novel foods. Primary Author and Speaker: Victoria Merritt Additional Authors and Speakers: Angela Caldwell

0981 Sleep Practices In Pediatric Cancer—Does Sleep Hygiene Matter For Reducing Cancer Symptom Burden?

Abstract Introduction Sleep disturbances are common during pediatric cancer treatment and recent evidence suggests a correlation between sleep and symptom burden. Improving nighttime sleep may impact patients’ ability to cope with symptoms. The current study tests the interaction between sleep hygiene and sleep disturbances in predicting cancer-related symptoms to determine if the relationship between sleep and symptoms is different for patients with better sleep hygiene. Methods 102 caregivers of children with cancer (ages 5-17, M=10.12, SD=4.02; 58% female) completed parent-proxy Pediatric Sleep Practices Questionnaire (yielding routine consistency and sleep opportunity scores) and measures of cancer-related symptoms (PROMIS Sleep Disturbance, Fatigue, and Pain Interference; PedsQL—Cancer Module-Nausea subscale). The interaction between sleep disturbances and sleep hygiene (consistency, opportunity) on each symptom (pain, nausea, fatigue) were tested using PROCESS moderation. Results 81% of caregivers report that their child receives sufficient sleep but only 12% reported regular consistent sleep patterns/routines. Sleep opportunity was not related to sleep disturbances or cancer-related symptoms, but more routine consistency was related to fewer sleep disturbances (r=.30, p=.003). The interaction between sleep disturbances and routine consistency significantly predicted pain interference [R2=.16, F(3, 98)=6.37, p<.001; Bint =-0.17, p=.028] and nausea [R2=.16, F(3, 98)=6.47, p<.001; Bint=0.46, p=.004]. The interaction between sleep disturbances and sleep opportunity significantly predicted nausea [R2=.15, F(3, 98)=5.76, p=.001; Bint =0.68, p=.016] but not pain interference. Both interaction models predicting fatigue were not significant. Conclusion The sleep/pain and sleep/nausea relationships are stronger in patients with more consistent sleep routines and the sleep/nausea relationship is also stronger in patients with sufficient/well-timed sleep opportunities. Sleep and fatigue were moderately related across all levels of both sleep hygiene components. Clinical interventions that target sleep hygiene together with sleep disturbances such as nighttime awakenings and poor sleep quality may be more effective in addressing cancer-related symptoms such as pain and nausea. Support This work was supported in part by funding from the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI-D-17-00187; PI Christopher Forrest).

Coparenting and Chinese preschoolers’ social-emotional development: Child routines as a mediator

In recent years, the importance of young children’s social-emotional development has been increasingly recognized in Chinese culture. The current study examined the relationship among coparenting, child routines, and preschoolers’ social-emotional development in a Chinese sample. It was hypothesized that child routines would mediate the association between coparenting quality and children’s social-emotional adjustment. A total of 515 families with preschool-aged children from Shanghai were involved in this study. Multiple aspects of coparenting, child routines, and children’s social-emotional development were measured. Structural equation modeling was used to test the mediating effect of child routines. The results showed that the consistency of child routines significantly mediated the effects of coparenting quality on children’s social-emotional outcomes. Specifically, coparenting was positively related to the consistency of child routines, which was in turn positively related to children’s initiative and self-control, as well as negatively related to children’s behavioral concerns. The current study highlights the role of coparenting and child routines in Chinese young children’s social-emotional development. It offers implications for how parents can support young children’s development of consistent routines and social-emotional functioning in the family context.

The Relative Importance of Sleep Duration and Bedtime Routines for the Social-Emotional Functioning of Chinese Children.

Although the importance of sleep has been widely supported by empirical research, researchers have only recently linked sleep to children's social-emotional development. This study aimed to investigate 2 aspects of sleep-namely, sleep duration and bedtime routines-in relation to the social skills and problem behavior in a group of Chinese school-aged children. This study involved 228 Chinese children (mean age = 8.32 years). Parents reported their child's sleep duration, the consistency of bedtime routines, and social-emotional functioning. Both sleep duration and the consistency of bedtime routines had unique contributions to children's social-emotional functioning. Sex differences were found regarding the sleep-child adjustment link. Sleep duration was negatively associated with child problem behavior for both boys and girls. However, the relationship between bedtime routines and social skills was more pronounced for boys, while the relation between sleep duration and social skills was more evident for girls. Our findings highlight the importance of consistent bedtime routines and adequate sleep for the social-emotional development of Chinese school-aged children.

Parent-observed thematic data on quality of life in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Domains of quality of life in children with autism spectrum disorder have not previously been explored and there has been no quality of life measure developed for this population. Our study investigated parent observations to identify the domains important to children with autism spectrum disorder who also had an intellectual disability. In all, 21 parents (19 mothers, 2 fathers) of children with autism spectrum disorder (aged 6-17 years) participated in a qualitative study to discuss their child's quality of life. Thematic analysis using a grounded theory framework was conducted and 10 domains emerged in relation to health and well-being, capacity to perform and develop skills in daily life, and connections with the community and environment. Unique aspects of quality of life included varying levels of social desire, consistency of routines, and time spent in nature and the outdoors, which are not comprehensively captured in existing measures. Parent observations provide an initial framework for understanding quality of life in autism spectrum disorder and support the development of a new measure for this population.

Individual arousal-related performance zones effect on temporal and behavioral patterns in golf routines

AimConsistency, both in duration and behavior, of pre-performance routines has been closely related to overall performance quality. However, recent findings highlight that psychological and physiological states may have important implications for routine consistency. To further clarify this relationship, the present study sought to examine changes in routine consistency with respect to optimal and non-optimal arousal states. MethodThe present case study observed the performance routines of three high-skilled golfers during three rounds of competitive golf. Measures of arousal (heart rate) and outcome performance were used to determine each golfer’s Individual Arousal-related Performance Zones (IAPZs) (Kamata, Hanin, & Tenenbaum, 2002). Subsequently, temporal and behavioral patterns (consistency and number of rehearsal swings and glances toward the target) for both the full swing and golf putt were assessed across poor, moderate, and optimal levels of the golfer’s IAPZ. ResultsIdiosyncratic differences in routine patterns, both behaviorally and temporally were evident. More importantly, the consistency of the routines for each golfer varied under different arousal-related performance zones. That is, the temporal and behavioral patterns of the golfers varied in idiosyncratic ways across the IAPZ levels. ConclusionsThese findings suggest that factors that influence a performer’s arousal level can lead to idiosyncratic variations in a performer’s routine. Observation of these routine changes can provide insight into the negative tendencies that an athlete can have when performing outside their optimal zone. With this knowledge, practitioners can be more effective in helping athletes monitor and regulate arousal, which will ultimately lead to enhanced performance.