Routine Activity Theory Research Articles

Teasing and alcohol drinking among African American adolescents in Chicago's Southside: Implications for nursing practice

Guided by the routine activity theory, the current study proposes and tests pathways by which an absence of a capable guardian can contribute to interactions with motivated offenders and suitable targets, increasing the likelihood of teasing others and using alcohol. The study participants consisted of 612 African American adolescents in four low-income neighborhoods in Chicago's Southside. Measures include alcohol use, absence of a capable guardian, the presence of a motivated offender, target suitability, and teasing. Covariates include age, biological sex, and government assistance. Analyses included descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. The absence of a capable guardian variable positively correlated with the presence of a motivated offender. The presence of a motivated offender variable was positively associated with target suitability, which was positively related to teasing and alcohol use. The presence of a motivated offender and target suitability variables were positively associated with teasing and alcohol use. Findings highlight the importance of capable guardians and potentially have implications for nursing practice.

Using Space Syntax Analysis to Measure Patient Aggression Risk.

The present study investigates whether space syntax offers appropriate tools for identifying risks of aggression, interventional opportunities, and environmental design strategies to reduce the risk of Type II violence in emergency departments. Although healthcare workers are a relatively small percentage of the U.S. workforce, they sustain almost 75% of workplace assaults. Poor environmental design has been identified as an antecedent to aggression by patients and/or their companions. Guided by Rational Choice Theory, Lifestyle Exposure Theory, Routine Activity Theory, and Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED), the study uses five visibility graph analysis (VGA) measures: visibility, control, controllability, mean visual depth, and occlusivity. Three U.S. hospital-based emergency departments were selected. First, a VGA was performed on all three layouts. A second VGA was performed after excluding unconnected spaces, and a third was performed on key patient and staff areas. Last, a fourth VGA was conducted after performing physical modifications to the three departments. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in VGA measures not only between different layouts but also between the original and modified layouts. Specifically, small changes created by architectural features can affect visual access and exposure as measured by space syntax. Alcove-style spaces in key staff areas are also associated with limited visual control of the local environment. Typically, in smaller zones, central staff workstations afford better control of patient spaces. This study shows that space syntax analysis is a useful tool for identifying risks of aggression in hospital spaces and for identifying interventional opportunities.

CRIME HOTSPOT EMERGENCE IN MEXICO CITY: A COMPLEXITY SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE

We present a dynamic model based on the theories proposed by environmental criminologists to explain the emergence of crime hotspots within cities; a pervasive phenomenon that is largely independent of cities size and cultural differences. The model is defined on a multiplex network that represents a city spatial tiling with its corresponding urban transport infrastructure, allowing to explore the relation between crime hotspot locations and the network topological features. It also allows to explore the effects that cities time evolution and police checkpoints might have on the emergence of crime hotspots. For Mexico City, the model shows that heterogeneous distributions of criminal activity arise from a diffusion-driven instability, as a self-organizing process. The results obtained for this city are in line with several insights from environmental criminology, such as the relationship between urban layout and crime hotspots locations, or the conceptual label assigned to specific locations as crime generators. They also uncover new relationships between cities design and crime hotspot locations, and suggest that routine activity theory alone cannot explain the emergence of heterogeneous crime distributions.

Understanding the Sexual Victimization of Child and Elder Victims under the Lens of Interactional Victimology: A Routine Activities Theory Approach

This study aims to further our understanding of sexual victimization using the routine activities theory (RAT) framework. Specifically, this study compared offenders’ motivations as well as victims’ vulnerability, inertia, gratifiability, and accessibility in elder, child, and younger adult victims. The sample used in this study consists of 931 cases of extrafamilial sexual assaults that occurred in France. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed to examine the differences between the cases involving child (n = 193), adult (n = 500), and elder victims (n = 238). First, findings indicate that offenders do not present different motivations depending on the type of victim. Second, analyses suggest that child and elder victims presented similar patterns of suitability in comparison to adult victims. Finally, results show that for both child and elder victims, accessibility represents a major obstacle but manifested differently. Theoretical and practical implications as well as directions for future research are discussed.

Risky business: voluntary sex workers as suitable victims of work-related crimes in a legalised prostitution environment

Many studies have analysed the violence to which sex workers (SWs) are exposed in countries where prostitution is criminalised, but violence in sex work when it is a legal and freelance activity has seldom been studied. This study is based on non-systematic participant observation and 14 interviews conducted with cisgender and transgender freelance SWs exercising their profession in Switzerland. Findings show that all the participants had been victims of work-related offences and that their victimisation can be interpreted through the updated version of Routine Activities Theory. Few reported the victimisation to the police although in general, they said that they appreciated the Swiss police. Most common perpetrators were customers, passers-by, and colleagues. The places where offences occurred can be defined as risky settings. The police, the SWs themselves and other actors such as social workers are identified as controllers, while the legal framework and NGOs themselves can be labelled as super-controllers. Our study suggests that public policies should not be limited simply to regulating prostitution, but also continuing to ensure SW’s safety by developing evidence-based prevention strategies.

Occupational Hazards: Individual and Professional Factors of Why Journalists Become Victims of Online Hate Speech

ABSTRACT Journalists are regularly exposed to online hate speech their profession. Because discrimination often harms targets and can prompt self-censorship in journalistic content, undermining journalism’s public duty, it is essential to understand factors explaining why journalists become victims of online hate speech. Using Routine Activity Theory, an online survey of journalists in Germany (N = 497) revealed that conceptions of their roles as interpreters or adversaries were associated with more frequently being targets of online hate speech. Moreover, women journalists and journalists with migration background were additionally targeted by respectively sexist and racist online hate speech. Participation in active content moderation, a presumed destructive motivation, and audiences’ weak trust in media also raised journalists’ likelihood of being targets of hate speech online. Newsroom support, however, was positively related to such victimization, possibly as a result of sharing past experiences.

Food Fraud Vulnerability Assessment in the Chinese Baijiu Supply Chain.

As a representative of Chinese alcoholic drinks, baijiu has developed into a mass-consumption commodity. Its simple industrial chain makes it a suitable target for fraudsters. In order to understand the differences and potential factors of fraud vulnerability among groups at various levels, this study constructed a food fraud vulnerability assessment system for the Chinese baijiu supply chain based on routine activities theory. We examined the fraud vulnerability in the baijiu supply chain with data from 243 producers and 45 retailers by using the safe supply of affordable food everywhere (SSAFE) food fraud vulnerability assessment (FFVA) tool. The results indicate that fraud factors related to opportunities have an overall medium vulnerability, while those related to motivations and control measures have an overall medium-low vulnerability. In addition, there are significant differences in the perceived vulnerability of fraud factors across the supply chain. Moreover, retailers have overall higher fraud vulnerability in terms of opportunities and control measures than producers. The main reasons for the frequent occurrence of fraud in the baijiu industry are numerous technical opportunities, strong economic drivers, and insufficient control measures.

Understanding the cyber-victimization of young people: A test of routine activities theory

Research on cybervictimization focuses on a variety of behaviors. The present study focuses on four behaviors: hacking, having obscene photos shared, bullying, and stalking/trespass to test the Lifestyles Routine Activities Theory (LRAT). Much of the research on cybervictimization uses LRAT to help explain how some groups of individuals are susceptible to becoming victims. We surveyed young adults, aged 18–25, using a paid Qualtrics sample and a convenience sample from a southern university. Using binominal logistic regression, we test the likelihood of victimization across the various behaviors and with the three main elements of LRAT, motivated offender, suitable target, and absence a capable guardian. We found that online dating was the most likely way to be exposed to a motivated offender, that visiting explicit websites made one a suitable target, and knowing how to set privacy settings helped guard against victimization.

How are financial institutions enabling online fraud? A developmental online financial fraud policy review

PurposeThe criminalization of online financial fraud is examined by analyzing the existing literature, policies and state statutes within the context of the cybercrime ecosystem. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate online fraud policies within the USA and the prevalence of such incidents to explore the effectiveness of current fraud policies.Design/methodology/approachThis examination explores policies related to online fraud within the USA by defining online financial fraud incidents within the context of the cybercrime ecosystem and analyzing such incidents with routine activities theory to emphasize the current legislative inadequacies with provisional policy recommendations.FindingsThis research suggests online financial fraud is not unanimously conceptualized among regulating or criminal institutions. Although federal regulators have governed financial institutions, federal institutions have failed to account for the capabilities of computer-mediated and technological device use (12 USC §1829).Research limitations/implicationsThe limited research analyzing the effectiveness of guardianship that prevents or deters internet-mitigated or dependent financial fraud crimes.Practical implicationsPolicy recommendations include but are not limited to mandating federal and privatized financial institutions to disclose all fraudulent activity to all stakeholders (e.g. customers and local and federal criminal justice agencies).Originality/valueThis paper provides an innovative approach using a criminological theory and policy framework to examine the prevalence of online fraud and the regulations enacted to counteract such violations.

Measuring perceived racial heterogeneity and its impact on crime: An ambient population-based approach

Social disorganization theory has significantly contributed to understanding the relationship between community characteristics and crime. It is based on the assumption that the residents of a community define the characteristics of the community. In particular, Shaw and McKay discover that racial heterogeneity could disrupt the local community's social organization and account for crime and delinquency. While residents play the most important role in defining the characteristics of a community, non-residents who frequent a community could also affect the community. The perceived racial composition is likely to be different from the makeup of the residential population. Drawing from the recent big data which could capture residents and non-residents, this paper proposes an innovative racial heterogeneity index based on the ambient population. The effectiveness of the new index is illustrated by using negative binomial models, to explain street crime. The findings show that the ambient population-based racial heterogeneity index outperforms the traditional one in explaining street robbery. Further, the new index positively impacts street robbery in a statistically significant fashion. Conversely, the traditional index shows no statistically significant influence. The study also reveals that the racial heterogeneity of ambient population in an area is mostly contributed by the visitors from the neighboring areas. Overall, the proposed ambient population-based racial heterogeneity is theoretically sound and effective in explaining street crimes such as street robbery. The novel approach and findings add new contributions to social disorganization and routine activity theories.

Telecommunication and cyber fraud victimization among Chinese college students: An application of routine activity theory

Analyzing survey data from 1037 college students in China, a country with the world’s largest number of Internet users and the world’s largest e-commerce market, the current study demonstrates that consistent with previous research, some routine telecom/cyber activities of Chinese college students predict higher odds of being targeted for telecom/cyber fraud, but online routines do not seem to predict the odds of completed victimization resulting in a financial loss. In contrast, the perceived presence of effective formal guardianship and target suitability exert a greater influence. These findings suggest that those previously and commonly used measures of routine activity theory are better suited for explaining attempted telecom/cyber fraud victimization, whereas completed victimization is chiefly predicted by target suitability such as risky/deviant online behaviors and low self-control.

Cyberbullying in the workplace: a novel framework of routine activities and organizational control

PurposeThis study aims to develop a unified theoretical framework that presents a cohesive picture of workplace cyberbullying to better understand the interplay between cyberbullying, its effects on organizations and organizational controls enacted to contain these effects.Design/methodology/approachThe study conducts a theoretical review of the workplace cyberbullying literature between 2005 and 2021 drawing upon existing literature and two important theories, the routine activities theory and control theory. The final sample of 54 empirical papers represents a comprehensive body of literature on cyberbullying published across various disciplines.FindingsA theoretical model of workplace cyberbullying is developed, which highlights major antecedents to workplace cyberbullying and its impact on individual employees as well as organizations.Originality/valueAs firms increasingly rely on information and communication technologies (ICTs), the misuse of ICTs in the form of cyberbullying is also increasing. Workplace cyberbullying severely hurts an organization’s employees and compromises the efficacy of its information systems. Fortunately, various controls can be utilized by firms to minimize workplace cyberbullying and its attendant costs. In all, eleven propositions are offered, providing a robust agenda for future research. The authors also offer insights for practitioners on how to minimize cyberbullying in the workplace and its damaging effects.

Exploring Cybercrime Victimization of Social Media Users: A Comparative Review of Routine Activities Theory and Low Self-Control

Exploring Cybercrime Victimization of Social Media Users: A Comparative Review of Routine Activities Theory and Low Self-Control

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Phishing Frequency and Content. The Impact of Routine Activities Theory and a Rational Choice Model of Crime

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Phishing Frequency and Content. The Impact of Routine Activities Theory and a Rational Choice Model of Crime

A Taxonomy for Risk Assessment of Cyberattacks on Critical Infrastructure (TRACI)

Cybercrime against critical infrastructures such as nuclear reactors, power plants, and dams has been increasing in frequency and severity. Recent literature regarding these types of attacks has been extensive but due to the sensitive nature of this field, there is very little empirical data. We address these issues by integrating Routine Activity Theory and Rational Choice Theory, and we create a classification tool called TRACI (Taxonomy for Risk Assessment of Cyberattacks on Critical Infrastructure). We take a Design Science Research approach to develop, evaluate, and refine the proposed artifact. We use mixed methods to demonstrate that our taxonomy can successfully capture the characteristics of various cyberattacks against critical infrastructure. TRACI consists of three dimensions, and each dimension contains its own subdimensions. The first dimension comprises hacker motivation, which can be financial, socio-cultural, thrill-seeking, and/or economic. The second dimension represents the assets such as cyber, physical, and/or cyber-physical components. The third dimension is related to threats, vulnerabilities, and controls that are fundamental to establishing and maintaining an information security posture and overall cyber resilience. Our work is among the first to utilize criminological theories and Design Science to create an empirically validated artifact for improving critical infrastructure risk management.

A FRAUD MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK FOR MOBILE FINANCIAL SERVICES WITHIN KENYA

Mobile banking offers several benefits to financial sectors, including convenience in terms of time, money and effective customer relationship management. However, illegal actions in the digital age have altered the mode banks operate. It has sparked interest in mobile banking. The expansion of mobile banking fraud especially SIM swapping, hacking identity theft, social engineering, denial of service attack and account take over have created various challenges to financial sectors. The perceived criminal actions are due to continuous growth of mobile banking and computer networks. The identified challenges of rise in mobile financial fraud are due to lack of a proper framework to manage the fraud comprehensively among stakeholders. This study investigated fraud management in the Kenyan financial sector. The study used mixed research methodologies using descriptive and inferential analysis. The developed framework was informed by Fraud Triangle Theory (FTT), Routine Activity Theory (RAT), Fraud Management Lifecycle Theory (FMLT) and Deterrence Theory (DT). The findings confirmed that the fraud triangle and deterrence theories are very instrumental when applied to mobile fraud management. Finally, the result of findings will have significant implications not only to academic researchers but likewise for financial institution policymakers and anti-fraud organizations in both the commercial and governmental sectors. KEY WORDS: Fraud management, Banks, Financial services, Framework, Mobile banking, Central Bank of Kenya (CBK), Fraud theories, Fraud principles, Effective, SIM Swap, Customers.

The Effect of COVID-19 Restrictions on Routine Activities and Online Crime

ObjectivesRoutine activity theory suggests that levels of crime are affected by peoples’ activity patterns. Here, we examine if, through their impact on people’s on- and off-line activities, COVID-19 restriction affected fraud committed on- and off-line during the pandemic. Our expectation was that levels of online offending would closely follow changes to mobility and online activity—with crime increasing as restrictions were imposed (and online activity increased) and declining as they were relaxed. For doorstep fraud, which has a different opportunity structure, our expectation was that the reverse would be true.MethodCOVID-19 restrictions systematically disrupted people’s activity patterns, creating quasi-experimental conditions well-suited to testing the effects of “interventions” on crime. We exploit those conditions using ARIMA time series models and UK data for online shopping fraud, hacking, doorstep fraud, online sales, and mobility to test hypotheses. Doorstep fraud is modelled as a non-equivalent dependent variable, allowing us to test whether findings were selective and in line with theoretical expectations.ResultsAfter controlling for other factors, levels of crime committed online were positively associated with monthly variation in online activities and negatively associated with monthly variation in mobility. In contrast, and as expected, monthly variation in doorstep fraud was positively associated with changes in mobility.ConclusionsWe find evidence consistent with routine activity theory, suggesting that disruptions to people’s daily activity patterns affect levels of crime committed both on- and off-line. The theoretical implications of the findings, and the need to develop a better evidence base about what works to reduce online crime, are discussed.

Influence of Varied Ambient Population Distribution on Spatial Pattern of Theft from the Person: The Perspective from Activity Space

The ambient population has been regarded as an important indicator for analyzing or predicting thefts. However, the literature has taken it as a homogenous group and seldom explored the varied impacts of different kinds of ambient populations on thefts. To fill this gap, supported by mobile phone trajectory data, this research investigated the relationship between ambient populations of different social groups and theft in a major city in China. With the control variables of motivated offenders and guardianship, spatial-lag negative binominal models were built to explore the effects of the ambient populations of different social groups on the distribution of theft. The results found that the influences of ambient populations of different social groups on the spatial distribution of theft are different. Accounting for the difference in the “risk–benefit” characteristics among different activity groups to the offenders, individuals from the migrant population are the most likely to be potential victims, followed by suburban and middle-income groups, while college, affluent, and affordable housing populations are the least likely. The local elderly population had no significant impact. This research has further enriched the studies of time geography and deepened routine activity theory. It suggests that the focus of crime prevention and control strategies developed by police departments should shift from the residential space to the activity space.

Maritime security strategy and operational performance in the fourth republic

This study examines the maritime security strategies adopted by Nigerian government to ensure maximum security in the Nigeria maritime domain. The study looked at maritime security as the preventive and responsive actions to guard against threats and intended illegitimate acts in Nigeria. It tries to evaluate maritime security strategy and operational performance under the Fourth Republic. The study relies on secondary data with leverage on content analysis by examining literature concerning maritime security strategy and operational performance in the fourth republic through search for publicly available material and literature. The study engaged Routine Activity theory which explained that crime is the aftermath of combined result of three indispensable elements; motivated offender, suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians. The study revealed that Nigerian maritime security has a direct bearing on the State’s capacity to secure its national assets from attack. The study also discovered that the threats, and the inability of the Gulf of Guinea countries to adequately manage their maritime security have led to a call for regional approaches and external support to enhance Security in the Maritime environment. The study reveals that there is yet no national maritime policy which would capture the elements of maritime security. The study submitted that the protracted process of considering a Bill for maritime security apparently is a pointer to the lukewarm attitude towards the subject which confirms the need for political commitment to maritime security matters. The study recommends an urgent review of the existing maritime security architecture and increased investment to secure port facilities, maritime assets and the entire maritime domain.

A multilevel examination of the association between COVID-19 restrictions and residence-to-crime distance

Restrictions resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted people’s daily routine activities. Rooted in crime pattern and routine activity theories, this study tests whether the enactment of a Safer-at-Home mandate was associated with changes in the distance between individuals’ home addresses and the locations of where they committed crimes (i.e., residence-to-crime distance). Analyses are based on violent (N = 282), property (N = 1552), and disorder crimes (N = 1092) reported to one police department located in a United States’ Midwest suburb. Multilevel models show that residence-to-crime distances were significantly shorter during the Safer-at-Home order, compared to the pre- and post-Safer-at-Home timeframes, while controlling for individual and neighborhood characteristics. Additionally, these relationships varied by crime type. Consistent with the literature, the findings support the argument that individuals tend to offend relatively near their home address. The current findings extend the state of the literature by highlighting how disruptions to daily routine activities stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic led to alterations in crime patterns, in which analyses indicated shorter distances between home address and offense locations.