Routine Activity Theory Research Articles

Got milk? Got cybersecurity risks! Unraveling ransomware threats in the German dairy industry

PurposeThis study aims to explore the vulnerabilities of the dairy industry to ransomware threats, focusing particularly on the upstream supply chain and applying routine activity theory (RAT) to understand the evolving dynamics of cybercrime in critical infrastructure sectors.Design/methodology/approachUtilizing expert interviews and network analysis, this research investigates the exploitation of complex supply chain vulnerabilities by motivated offenders. It delves into the intricate interplay between digital threats and physical supply continuity.FindingsThe study uncovers that ransomware threats transcend digital boundaries, manifesting in disruptions to physical operations and presenting significant risks to food security. It underscores the threat posed by the convergence of information technology (IT) and operational technology (OT), emphasizing the urgent need for heightened awareness and robust defenses against this substantial menace.Practical implicationsAddressing cyber vulnerabilities in critical sectors like dairy ensures not only the security of operations but also safeguards broader societal interests such as food security. Collaboration and proactive measures are essential to mitigate potential social and economic disruptions caused by cyber incidents.Originality/valueThis research fills a knowledge gap by shedding light on the nexus between cyber threats and supply chain resilience. It emphasizes the need for industries to adapt traditional defense mechanisms in the face of sophisticated digital adversaries.

Mobilizing extremism: an examination of the travel patterns of right-wing extremists in the United States

ABSTRACT Extensive criminological research has documented a ‘distance-decay’ effect in criminal activity, with offenders less likely to commit crimes farther from their residences. While recent studies have identified similar patterns in ideologically motivated violence, variation in the travel behaviors of extremists remains underexplored. Using data on right-wing extremists who carried out a violent plot, between 2000 and 2020, alongside information on Capitol insurrectionist arrestees – and drawing on routine activity and rational-choice theories of offender decision-making – this study extends this literature along three dimensions: type, time, and ties. First, we distinguish between different types of offenders, showing that while both violent extremists and insurrectionists exhibit distance-decays, the latter tend to travel farther and exhibit a more irregular decay. Secondly, we identify a meaningful temporal shift in the right-wing extremist landscape, with offenders increasingly traveling longer distances to execute their plots. Finally, we highlight the role of social ties in shaping travel behaviors, where individuals affiliated with extremist groups tend to travel longer distances. These findings contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the spatial behavior of right-wing extremists, the factors influencing their mobility, and the evolving nature of right-wing extremism in the United States.

Investigating the Degree to Which Unstructured Socializing With Peers and Delinquency Are Nonlinear.

Since the formulation of Cohen and Felson's (1979) routine activity theory (RAT), Osgood et al. (1996) established a reformulated theory to better explain patterns of situational offense and coined the RAT of general deviance or more commonly known as unstructured socializing with peers (USWP). The present study seeks to explore whether spending more time in USWP may increase antisocial behavior in a nonlinear manner, either accelerating or decelerating. Results showed that the relationship between USWP and property delinquency was found to be nonlinear in a decelerating manner. Similar results were found for the association between USWP and substance use. Finally, the relationship between USWP and violent delinquency was significant, although no evidence was found for nonlinearity. The present study concludes with theoretical implications, limitations, and directions for future research.

Navigating online perils: Socioeconomic status, online activity lifestyles, and online fraud targeting and victimization of old adults in China

Online fraud poses a growing threat to the well-being of old adults. This study examines the causes and correlates of online fraud targeting and victimization among old adults in China. Drawing insights from the digital inequality theory and lifestyle routine activity theory and utilizing a nationally representative survey of Chinese old adults (N = 4293), this study examines how socioeconomic status and online lifestyle patterns affect their susceptibility to online fraud. The results show that old adults of better socioeconomic status are more likely to be targeted by online frauds, though not necessarily experiencing financial loss. Latent class analysis identifies four online activity lifestyles among old adults: basic, entertainment, risky, and advanced users. Subsequent analysis demonstrates that these lifestyle types predict different risks of online fraud targeting and victimization. Basic users face a heightened risk of being targeted but not necessarily monetary loss. Risky users, while not exhibiting elevated targeting risks compared to basic users, are more susceptible to financial loss once targeted. Advanced users, in contrast to basic users, face elevated risks of being targeted and monetary loss. This study offers new insights into the risk factors for online fraud targeting and victimization among old adults in China, informing the development of effective online fraud prevention programs.

Mitigating security risks in global supply chains: The role of strategic communication and criminological approaches in countering illicit trade and cyber threats

In the era of global commerce, the integrity and resilience of supply chains have become paramount. However, the increasing complexity of international supply networks has exposed them to a myriad of security risks, including both physical threats and cyberattacks. This paper explores the critical role of strategic communication and criminological approaches in mitigating security risks within global supply chains. It argues that a proactive approach to security—one that integrates effective communication strategies and criminological theories—can significantly enhance the ability of organizations to manage and mitigate these risks. Strategic communication, encompassing clear messaging, timely information sharing, and robust stakeholder engagement, is essential for maintaining transparency and preparedness in supply chain operations. Effective communication ensures that all stakeholders are informed about potential threats and the measures in place to address them, thereby facilitating a coordinated and timely response to security incidents (Fearn-Banks, 2016; Coombs, 2007). This paper examines how organizations can develop and implement comprehensive communication plans that enhance their ability to anticipate and respond to security threats. In addition, the application of criminological theories, such as routine activity theory, situational crime prevention, and deterrence theory, provides valuable frameworks for understanding and addressing security vulnerabilities in supply chains. Routine activity theory emphasizes the importance of identifying motivated offenders, suitable targets, and capable guardians, which can help organizations develop targeted security measures to reduce opportunities for criminal activities (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Situational crime prevention focuses on modifying the environment to deter crime, while deterrence theory highlights the role of penalties and enforcement in preventing criminal behavior (Clarke, 1997; Becker, 1968). This paper explores how these theories can be applied to enhance supply chain security and develop effective preventive strategies. The integration of strategic communication with criminological approaches offers a holistic framework for mitigating security risks in supply chains. By combining these strategies, organizations can improve their ability to manage security threats, safeguard their assets, and ensure the continuity of their operations. The findings of this paper underscore the importance of adopting a comprehensive approach to supply chain security that incorporates both communication and criminological insights. Keywords: Global Supply Chains, Security Risks, Strategic Communication, Criminological Approaches, Cyber Threats, Licit Trade, Routine Activity Theory, Situational Crime Prevention, Deterrence Theory, Supply Chain Security.

Market warfare strategy and rural armed banditry in Zamfara State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT As rural armed banditry in Nigeria defies conventional warfare strategies, including militarisation, negotiation, and amnesty, the Zamfara state government in Nigeria introduced a market warfare strategy to contain the spread of rural armed banditry. The markets were shut down across the state, particularly in rural areas, to stop buying and selling all kinds of goods and services to deny armed bandits access to markets where they could sell rustled cows, acquire provisions for their basic needs, and purchase arms and ammunition. The article used the routine activity theory and a qualitative analysis approach to examine the market warfare strategy in Zamfara State. It argues that, the respite provided by the strategy was temporary, as its impact on the poor people is has been devastating.

Cyber Victimization in the Healthcare Industry: Analyzing Offender Motivations and Target Characteristics through Routine Activities Theory (RAT) and Cyber-Routine Activities Theory (Cyber-RAT)

Cyber Victimization in the Healthcare Industry: Analyzing Offender Motivations and Target Characteristics through Routine Activities Theory (RAT) and Cyber-Routine Activities Theory (Cyber-RAT)

Cybercrime target exposure, suitability, personality, and victimization: A longitudinal approach

This study utilizes the routine activity theory as a framework to examine if workplace social media usage, compulsive internet use, online aggression and personality traits are related to an elevated risk of cybervictimization. We leveraged 7-wave longitudinal survey data from the Finnish working population (N = 650) and employed multilevel, mixed-effects logistic regression to analyze fixed effects of in-between variables. Our findings reveal that target exposure, suitability and the personality trait of openness had a positive relationship with cybervictimization. We observed fluctuations in cybervictimization across the observation points, although the temporal pattern did not follow a linear trajectory. The results underscore the importance of longitudinal studies on victimization and advocate additional research on cybervictimization within the working population. This study also emphasizes the need for the integration of established theories to augment our comprehension of the fundamental factors influencing cybervictimization.

Reactive guardianship: Who intervenes? How? And why?

AbstractGuardianship is a core tenet of routine activity theory and collective efficacy. At its outset, routine activity research assumed that the mere presence of a guardian was sufficient to disrupt many forms of crime. More recent research, however, has taken as a starting point that would‐be‐guardians must take on an active role for a reduction in crime to occur. Integrating research on bystander intervention and guardianship‐in‐action, the current study elaborates the individual‐level motivations and decision processes of guardianship to answer the following questions: Who serves as a reactive guardian? How do they do so? And why? We tasked young adults (N = 1,032) included in the recent waves of the Zurich Project on the Social Development from Childhood to Adulthood (z‐proso) to assess a 70‐second video depicting a sexual harassment event. We examined participants’ willingness to engage in a range of intervention options as a function of their prosocial attitudes, safety considerations, socioemotional motivations, and moral considerations. Results show a complex decision process leading to whether and how a would‐be guardian decides to intervene to disrupt sexual harassment, such that prosocial motivations and emotional reactions are weighed against perceptions of danger when deciding on a specific course of action.

Motivational Analysis Behind Cyber Criminal Behaviour in Nigeria

The invention of the cyberspace showcased in the use of internet, a necessary tool that has come to stay, defining how people interact and communicate on daily basis, defiling the phenomenon of time and space, thereby making the world a global community. The internet can be said to be a two edged sword that is advantageous and can be destructive depending on the application and user motivations. It’s on this note that the work analyzes the motivations behind cybercriminal behaviour in Nigeria, Identifying ‘anonymity in cyberspace, thrill-seeking, financial gain, revenge seeking, addiction, law enforcement and weak cyber security’ as the key motivations behinds cybercriminal behaviours. ‘Routine Activity Theory’ was used to analyze the work, anchoring it on the premise of ‘motivated offender’. The study concluded with recommendations that government and stakeholders in the cyberspace industries, need to prioritize investment in ‘law enforcement and weak cyber security’ overhauling the security architecture in charge of prosecutions and investigation of cybercrime activities/offenses, which guarantee protection of confidential data and reduce the risk of cybercrimes.

Exploring the Impact of Routine Activity and Financial Strain on Fraud Victimization During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong

This study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fraud victimization in Hong Kong, providing valuable insights beyond the Western context. Drawing on general strain theory and routine activity theory, this research explores the influence of economic recession at the local and adjacent societal levels, as well as residential duration (refers to relative time spent at residences), on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. Utilizing 10 years (120 months) of monthly police-recorded victimization data, this study employs various methodologies, including ARIMA forecasting, single-group interrupted time series analysis (ITSA), and Poisson regression, to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. The ARIMA framework reveals an unexpected and significant increase in fraud victimization during the COVID-19 period, surpassing the predicted levels. The ITSA results demonstrate that the pandemic had a short-term and long-term effect on fraud victimization in Hong Kong. To further understand the factors contributing to this change, a Poisson regression analysis is conducted. The findings highlight the positive and significant impact of residential duration and the unemployment rate in mainland China on fraud victimization, aligning with the propositions of routine activity theory and general strain theory. Limitations and policy implications at both the local and international levels are discussed.

The Effect of Public Safety Policies on Crime Reduction in France

Purpose: To aim of the study was to analyze the effect of public safety policies on crime reduction in France. Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries. Findings: Leadership in Indian organizations plays a pivotal role in enhancing organizational learning and knowledge management by promoting knowledge sharing, continuous learning, and innovation. Effective leaders facilitate the retention of critical knowledge and improve decision-making processes, thereby driving competitive advantage and organizational success. This leadership approach fosters a culture of continuous improvement and adaptability, essential for thriving in dynamic business environments. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Routine activity theory, social disorganization theory & broken windows theory may be used to anchor future studies on the effect of public safety policies on crime reduction in France. Enhance training programs for police officers to include comprehensive modules on community engagement, cultural competency, and communication skills. Encourage the adoption of diverse public safety policies tailored to the unique needs of different communities. Policymakers should prioritize flexibility and adaptability in policy design, allowing for the integration of multiple strategies based on local crime dynamics and community feedback.

COVID-19, Cybercrime Proliferation, and National Security in Nigeria: Evidence from Lagos State Youths

That security is a public good is an apophthegm. Insecurity in Nigeria has been exacerbated since the COVD-19 pandemic. This is connected to the proliferation of cybercrime among youths which increased exponentially during the pandemic. This study addresses a lacuna in previous studies by investigating COVID-19 and cybercrime proliferation, cybercrime occasioned by COVID-19, and national security in Nigeria within the frameworks of the human security and routine activity theories. This study adopts a quantitative approach that uses structured questionnaires and interviews. Purposive multistage sampling was used to select 200 youth from 10 wards in Ikeja and Badagry local government areas and data were analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient. The findings showed that COVID-19 had a significant relationship with cybercrime proliferation and cybercrime occasioned by COVID-19 significantly affected national security in Nigeria. The increased number of computer users during the pandemic enabled some users to exploit others amid poor cybersecurity to commit cybercrime. The article recommends a reorientation of youth to reduce their susceptibility to crime, the development of cybersecurity policies to reduce the availability of suitable targets, and the empowerment of capable guardians such as the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission.

Home sharing or crime sharing? Evidences of the relationship between Airbnb, crime and structural factors in Malaga, Spain

ABSTRACT Negative externalities stemming from overtourism have been widely reported in the literature. However, a consequence less explored in scientific research is the increase in crime rates derived from high levels of tourism. This article analyses the relationship between the concentration of Airbnb accommodation and crime density in the city of Malaga (Spain); both the social disorganization and the routine activities theories are used as the theoretical basis. The region under study has been defined by removing the non-urbanized part of the city and the unit of spatial analysis is the census tract. The relationship between Airbnb and crime has been measured by controlling for other factors traditionally related to crime. Two models that take into account the spatial nature of the data have been employed: a two-stage spatially weighted spatial least squares model and a geographically weighted regression model. Results show that Airbnb is significantly related to an increase in crime density in the census tract, as is the proportion of people born in countries with a Human Development Index below .825. Nightlife likewise shows a significant relationship with crime in the city, but this relationship is inverse. Nevertheless, the variable that shows the strongest link is crime itself in neighboring census tracts. An increase in crime in a given region leads to an increase in crime in the surrounding census tracts. However, the local model reveals that the impact of crime in adjacent units is not related in the same way to local crime in region analyzed as a whole. The policy implications of these results and other findings contrary to the original criminological theories are discussed.

Learning the rational choice perspective: A reinforcement learning approach to simulating offender behaviours in criminological agent-based models

Over the past 15 years, environmental criminologists have explored the application of agent-based models (ABMs) of crime events and various theoretical frameworks applied to understand them. Models have supported criminological theorising and, in some cases, been applied to make predictions about the impact of interventions devised to reduce crime. However, decision-making frameworks utilised in criminological ABMs have typically been implemented through traditional techniques such as condition-action rules. While these models have provided significant insights, they neglect a crucial component of theoretical accounts of offending, the notion that offenders are learning agents whose behavioural dynamics change over time and space. In response, this article presents an ABM of residential burglary in which offender agents utilise reinforcement learning (RL) to learn behaviours. This solution enables offender agents to learn from individual-level perceptions of the environment and, given these perceptions, develop behavioural responses that benefit themselves. The model includes conceptualisations of the Routine Activity Theory (RAT), Crime Pattern Theory (CPT) and a utility function, Target Attractiveness, which acts as a behavioural mould to nudge offender agents to learn behaviours in keeping with the Rational Choice Perspective (RCP). Trained behaviours are then tested by introducing crime prevention interventions into the model and examining the reactions of offender agents. In keeping with empirical studies of offending, experimental results demonstrate that offender agents utilising RL learn to offend at targets where rewards outweigh risks and effort, offend close to home, frequently victimise high-rewarding targets, and conversely learn to avoid offending in areas associated with high levels of risk and effort.

Impact of CCTV on Police Operations Outcomes in Nairobi City County, Kenya

The widespread adoption of Closed-Circuit Television (CCTV) systems in major cities globally aims to improve policing outcomes. However, despite Nairobi’s CCTV system being operational since mid-2015, its specific impact remained unclear. This study investigated how CCTV influenced five key police operation outcomes: crime reduction, response times, road safety, officer safety, and cost reduction. Drawing from Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory, the study employed a convergent mixed-method design combining a cross-sectional survey with a phenomenological design. Participants included 403 police officers from the CCTV command centre and various police stations across the county, selected via cluster and purposive sampling. Data collection utilised questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Quantitative analysis employed binary logistic regression, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis. The findings revealed that CCTV has significantly reduced crime, enhanced road safety and officer safety, and lowered operational costs. However, response times saw minimal improvement due to limited CCTV coverage and coordination challenges between officers. The study recommends expanding coverage, strengthening collaboration among officers, and publicising the system's successes to maximise CCTV's potential

Theoretical and Experimental Framework for Estimating Cyber Victimization Risk in a Hybrid Physical-Virtual World

This study proposes a framework integrating Routine Activities Theory into a hybrid physical-virtual space. Utilizing a space-time path metaphor, it explores phishing susceptibility in relation to daily activities in the hybrid physical-virtual environments. The mixed-method approach includes surveys and experiments, such as simulated phishing emails, to assess response patterns in both settings and investigate travel behavior’s impact on cyber victimization. This hybrid model seeks to understand how physical and virtual interactions affect cybercrime vulnerability, aiding in developing prevention strategies. Additionally, the research underscores the role of visual analytics in cybersecurity, turning complex data into visual forms for effective threat analysis.

Banditry, Insecurity and Development in Benue State

This paper examined the impact of banditry and insecurity on development in Benue State. Specifically, the paper interrogated the causes of and various forms of banditry and insecurity, as well as the implications of the security challenges on development in Benue State. To this effect, the paper relied on secondary sources of data collection and Routine Activity Theory as a framework for analysis. Findings from the paper show that several factors are responsible for the state of banditry and insecurity in Benue State. These causes include youth unemployment and poverty, the desperation of politicians to capture political power, the proliferation of small and light weapons, a weak security system, and pervasive material inequalities and injustices, among others. Insecurity in Benue State has negatively affected development in Benue State. This has led to the loss of over 28,997 lives and properties, with 54,476 houses and farm produce valued at over N21 billion destroyed. Conflict between farmers and herders has caused displacement, leading to food insecurity. Violence between farmers and herders, and other forms of communal conflicts have destroyed infrastructure, forcing many children out of school. The burning down of police stations and 33 markets has intensified poverty and pauperization among the Benue people. The paper recommended, among others, addressing the root causes of banditry and insecurity: poverty, unemployment, and social marginalisation can contribute to the rise of banditry and insecurity. Also, addressing banditry, insecurity, and development challenges in Benue State requires a collaborative effort from various stakeholders, including the government, local communities, and international partners.

Risk Factors for Non-Consensual Sexting Among Adolescents and Emerging Adults: An Extension of the Routine Activity Theory Perspective.

Adolescence and emerging adulthood are developmental phases in which the exploration of one's own sexuality takes on a high priority, which can increase the risk of risky sexual behavior. Due to technological advances, (non-consensual) sexting has increased among young people and has become an integral part of their sexual socialization. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to examine non-consensual sexting (both victimization and perpetration) among adolescents and emerging adults and to identify potential risk factors associated with non-consensual sexting using routine activity theory. The sample consisted of a total of 3514 adolescents aged 10-17years (43% males; 57% females) and 3674 emerging adults aged 18-25years (23% males; 77% females) from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. The results showed that both male adolescents and emerging adults were at higher risk for experiencing non-consensual sexting victimization. Personal factors such as gender, age, social bond, and routine cell phone activity predicted the risk of becoming a victim of non-consensual sexting in adolescents. For emerging adults, gender, social connection to friends, and routine cell phone use predicted the risk of becoming a victim of non-consensual sexting. Relationship status and routine cell phone activity predicted the forwarding of other sexts for both age groups. According to international scientific research and the findings of this particular study, we can conclude that the study of personal factors and routine variables helps understand non-consensual sexting among youth but is also essential in planning educational resources and preventive activities.

Policy Approaches to Combat Livestock Theft and Enhance Security

Purpose: This study sought to analyze policy approaches to combat livestock theft and enhance security. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to policy approaches to combat livestock theft and enhance security. Preliminary empirical review revealed that a multi-faceted approach is essential to effectively address livestock theft. It emphasized the importance of integrating legislative measures, technological innovations, community-based initiatives, and enhanced law enforcement efforts. Technologies like GPS tracking and RFID tags were found effective but required financial support for widespread adoption. Community involvement and education were highlighted as critical for local surveillance and theft prevention. The study also underscored the need for robust legislative frameworks and international cooperation to deter theft and ensure consistent enforcement Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The Routine Activity Theory, Rational Choice Theory and Situational Crime Prevention Theory may be used to anchor future studies on policy approaches on combating livestock theft and enhance security. The study concluded that an integrated approach, including advanced security technologies, community involvement, and robust legislative frameworks, was essential for effectively reducing livestock theft. It highlighted the need for financial incentives to help farmers adopt GPS tracking and RFID tags, expanded community-based initiatives like Farm Watch, and stricter penalties for theft. The study also emphasized the importance of international cooperation for standardizing livestock identification practices and supporting cross-border law enforcement efforts. These recommendations aimed to enhance livestock security, mitigate financial losses, and improve community resilience Keywords: Livestock Theft, Livestock Security, Legislative Measures, Advanced Security Technologies, GPS Tracking, RFID Tags