Routing Table Research Articles

Various Routing Protocols of Vehicular Ad hoc Network: A Survey

Abstract: A vehicular ad hoc network is a type of network divided by an area where car nodes can join or leave the network. Due to the flexibility of the network environment active contractual routes are used in the development of the route from the source to the destination. Various active and active protocols are updated in this paper. Active routing protocols are those that use current network information in the development of the route from the source to the destination. Active routing protocols are those that use the pre-defined network information in the route setting. Active route agreements use route tables in route development. In this review paper, a literature survey was conducted on VANET route protocols. It is analyzed that an effective route protocol offers higher performance compared to active router protocols. Keywords: VANET, Reactive, Proactive Routing

A minimal resource high‐speed routing lookup mechanism for servers with NetFPGAs

AbstractThis paper studies how high‐performance computer servers, equipped with Field‐Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), can perform high‐speed routing. In particular, routing table lookup is considered since it is a key packet processing bottleneck for future routers that need to operate at Petabits‐per‐second. The paper defines and evaluates three routing lookup schemes used by routers/switches, using Xilinx NetFPGA SUME programmable data plane hardware boards. Two existing schemes, namely IP address‐based Longest Prefix Matching and Multi‐Protocol Label Switching tag‐based exact matching are implemented. In addition, the paper presents a new routing scheme called No Lookup Forwarding Scheme (NLFS) that does not use conventional lookup tables. The NLFS approach adds a custom routing tag that does not require any form of (forwarding) table lookup, and independent of the Binary/Ternary Content Associate Memory (CAM) capacity in the switch/router. The experimental results show that the NLFS scheme utilizes less FPGA resources, while reducing packet lookup latency by up to 18% against longest prefix match which is the de facto lookup mechanism used in switches. The key contribution of this work is that it enables the use of NetFPGAs to reduce CAM capacity requirements in switches/routers to help reduce memory costs. The proposed scheme has several use cases, including provision of on‐demand increase of packet routing capacity in data center networks and support for Network Function Virtualization‐based systems.

An adaptive multi-hop routing with IoT abstraction for minimizing delay-node capacity trade-offs in mobile ad-hoc network

<span>Delay and node capacity are incompatible mobile ad hoc constraints because of the network's versatility and self-disciplined design. </span><span>It is a challenging problem to maximize the trade-off between the above mobility correlation factors. </span><span>This manuscript proposes an adaptive multi-hop routing (A.M.R.) for mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) to minimize the trade-off by integrating the internet of things (IoT). IoT nodes' smart computing and offloading abilities are extended to ad-hoc nodes to improve routing and transmission. Dor MANET nodes in route exploration, neighbor selection, and data transmission, the beneficial features of IoT include enhanced decision making. The traditional routing protocols use IoT at the time of the neighbor discovery process in updating the routing table and localization. </span><span>The harmonizing technologies with their extended support improve the performance of MANETs has been estimated. The proposed method achieves better throughput (14.16 Mbps), delay (0.118), packet drop (126), and overhead (36 packets) when compared to existing methods.</span>

Application of Q‐Learning in Routing of Software‐Defined Wireless Mesh Network

AbstractA wireless mesh network uses an ad‐hoc routing module for communication between nodes by referring to the addresses assigned to the nodes according to the rules kept in the routing table. If links fail, then the necessary network routing information must be propagated via the relevant remaining reachable nodes. The weaknesses of this conventional wireless mesh network are its difficulty in terms of management and configuration adjustments due to the complex structure of the network. To cope with such difficulty, we propose the use of a machine learning technique to implement dynamic routing to deal with failures in the wireless mesh network. The aim is to improve network routing via a reinforcement‐learning framework. Specifically, the Q‐learning algorithm has been applied. The investigation results are reported for network scenarios under conditions of link failures, and the algorithm's parameter sensitivity analysis is given. In addition, the proposed algorithm is compared with the Dijkstra algorithm with either no or immediate link cost updates. The resultant end‐to‐end route latency is reported from the simulated conditions as parameterized by the real per‐hop latency measurement from the actual outdoor testbed implementation. © 2021 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

Enhancing Wireless Sensor Networks Routing Protocols based on Cross Layer Interaction

Wireless sensor networks aim to develop a smart city based on sensing environment. The routing protocols of wireless sensor networks is important to transfer the data in smart cities since sensor nodes have limited power and transmission range. The aim of this research is to enhance wireless sensor networks routing protocols based on proposed cross-layer interaction between physical layer and network layer also a proposed routing table information of wireless sensor nodes is developed to consider the transmission power of neighbor’s nodes to determine the next hop. Cross-layer interaction provides a useful information and effective adaptation for WSN routing protocols. As a result, the proposed routing protocol shows an improvement in network performance when number of intermediate nodes are minimized.

Improving security and privacy in VANET network using node authentication

The security of vehicular ad hoc networks is a serious problem (VANETs). Group- based communication on VANETs is a well-studied issue. Creating a group and distributing a key to a large number of fast-moving vehicles for secure communication is a significant security problem for VANETs. Distributed keys in VANETs enable the secure participation of vehicles that were not present when the group was created. Using polynomial interpolation, this study provides a new distributed key technique for safe group administration in VANET. This allows attackers to either steal the identity of the legal intermediary node or directly join the identified data transfer path. As a result, VANETs are particularly vulnerable to assaults. Also, the number of VANET applications has increased significantly in recent years due to advances in handheld device technology and wireless network deployment technologies. The flooding assault might target the targeted node or the network as a whole. This exploit targets network resources such when two hostile nodes (attackers) spread incorrect network information to their neighbors during routing table building, they become intermediate nodes on the designated route and discard data packets during communication. The proposed approach not only offers a distributed key for vehicles to form, join, and interact in the group, but it also provides and controls key distribution to ensure the security of VANETs. The experimental findings show that the suggested system is a safe option for group communication in VANETs.

Highly Available Packet Buffer Design With Hybrid Nonvolatile Memory

Internet routers/switches are vulnerable to system failures which require a power reset. Tremendous efforts are made to guarantee the high availability of the systems. A recent work shows that a phase change memory (PCM)-based routing lookup table can achieve high availability in the destination lookup of routers/switches. However, a packet buffer in routers/switches cannot benefit from the lookup table approach because it requires a much larger and higher-bandwidth memory system and its memory traffic is equally divided into reads and writes, while routing table accesses are mostly read-dominant. PCM can provide high availability even when the system undergoes a power reset but exhibits unacceptable write bandwidth. In this work, we propose a magnetic RAM (MRAM)/PCM-based hybrid memory packet buffer and a packet mapping method. A small MRAM combined with a large PCM can outperform the dynamic random access memory (DRAM)-based packet buffer by 28.5% or 22.4% on average for internet-mix packet traffic when optimizing only bandwidth or both bandwidth and lifetime. The proposed adaptive packet mapping method maps small packets less than a predetermined packet size threshold to MRAM for maximizing PCM bandwidth as small packets degrade row buffer locality in PCM. In addition, the mapping method dynamically changes the packet size threshold to capture the working set of packet buffering, which significantly improves PCM lifetime.

Reconfigurable content-addressable memory (CAM) on FPGAs: A tutorial and survey

Content-addressable memory (CAM) is a massively parallel searching device that returns the address of a given search input in one clock cycle. Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based CAMs are becoming popular due to their applications in the latest networking systems, e.g., software-defined networks (SDNs) leading to upcoming 5G networks. Ternary CAM (TCAM) implements a routing table in a network router to classify and forward data packets where don’t care bits (X-bits) correspond to multiple addresses. FPGAs do not have a hard-core CAM, although it is a prime element in networking applications. This paper serves as a comprehensive survey on FPGA-based CAM/TCAMs implemented using block random-access memory (BRAM), lookup table RAM (LUTRAM), and flip-flops (FFs). BRAM-based TCAM suffers from the pre-processing of mapping data, requires the data to be in a specific order in some cases, and has a large SRAM/TCAM bit ratio. LUTRAM-based CAM/TCAM suffers from wide bit-wise ANDing, high routing complexity, but has a small SRAM/TCAM bit ratio of 14 compared to 16 in the case of BRAM-based TCAM. Shallow and wide RAM blocks are required to implement large-size RAM-based TCAMs (BRAM-based and LUTRAM-based TCAMs). FF-based TCAMs use FFs as their memory elements and have reduced hardware costs per TCAM bit. However, due to the routing complexity, it suffers from scalability and a large amount of power consumption. The update latency of BRAM-based TCAM and LUTRAM-based TCAM is proportional to the depth of BRAM and LUTRAM, respectively. However, FF-based CAM updates in 1 or 2 clock cycles depending on the availability of input/output pins on target FPGA.

Discernment and Diminution of Black Hole Attack in Mobile Ad-Hoc Network using Artificial Intelligence

The MANET is an interesting research topic that has movable nodes. The mobile ad hoc system is an important research area. The nodes are connected by wireless connections. Thus it is vital to have a stable network because information and interaction are crucial in diverse fields such as security and catastrophe emergency response.Because of the decentralized system’s vibrant existence, these channels are vulnerable to various threats, including BHA, GHA, SHA. One of the well-known security issues in MANET is the black hole assault. Each node has a routing table containing information from the target node. The number of assaults in MANET is usually protocol networking assaults. The study focused on black hole attacks for discernment and decrease. A black hole attack node wrongly picks up all packet and collects them without passing them to an endpoint by taking a fresh path to the destination nodes. This paper presents BHA defence from assaults with the principle of Artificial Neural Network and calculates its efficiency according to the set of elements, such as efficiency, PDR and delay and energy utilization. This paper aims to devise an artificial neural network method for black hole discernment and reduction in MANET.

A dynamic routing CapsNet based on increment prototype clustering for overcoming catastrophic forgetting

In continual learning, previously learnt knowledge tends to be overlapped by the subsequent training tasks. This bottleneck, known as catastrophic forgetting, has recently been relieved between vision tasks involving pixel shuffles etc. Nevertheless, the challenge lies in the continuous classification of the sequential sets discriminated by global transformations, such as excessively spatial rotations. Aim at this, a novel strategy of dynamic memory routing is proposed to dominate the forward paths of capsule network (CapsNet) according to the current input sets. To recall previous knowledge, a binary routing table is maintained among these sequential tasks. Then, an increment procedure of competitive prototype clustering is integrated to update the routing of the current task. Moreover, a sparsity measurement is employed to decouple the salient routing among the different learnt tasks. The experimental results demonstrate the superiority of the proposed memory network over the state–of–the–art approaches by the recalling evaluations on extended sets of Cifar–100, CelebA and Tiny ImageNet etc.

Leveraging ICN With Network Sensing for Intelligent Transportation Systems: A Dynamic Naming Approach

The network sensing and tracking over the huge transportation network composed of a large number of vehicles and facilities are the basic functions of the Intelligent Transportation Systems, which is an important component of the Smart City. In the transportation network supported by the Information-Centric Network, the traditional static naming is adopted, and the track function is completed at the application layer. At the same time, a large amount of network status information that is continuously sensed consumes routing space. This paper proposes a Dynamic Naming approach to sense the Intelligent Transportation Systems network. It uses dynamic naming to describe the status of the changeable objects in the Intelligent Transportation Systems network sensed by the system, and adopts a block centralized storage structure to organize the routing table, which reduces redundant information and makes full use of routing space and historical routing information for network sensing. The Dynamic Naming approach shortens the query time, improves the efficiency of network sensing, and provides a new solution at the routing level to sense and track the status of dynamic objects in Intelligent Transportation Systems.

Crafting optimal and resilient iBGP-IP/MPLS overlays for transit backbone networks

The Internet is a collection of interconnected Autonomous Systems (ASes) that use the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) to exchange reachability information. In this regard, BGP stability and scalability in the inter-domain scope have been matters of major concern for many years, and network engineers have been applying several techniques to cope with these issues. BGP is also used intra-domain (internal BGP - iBGP), to disseminate reachability information inside each AS, and works together with the Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) such as OSPF or IS-IS, to build routing tables. Route reflection is a widely adopted technique to tackle BGP scalability in the intra-domain scope, and choosing which routers will play the reflector role and which BGP sessions will be established among reflectors and clients (i.e. the routers which are not elected as reflectors), building an overlay of iBGP sessions, is known as the iBGP overlay design problem. The design of an optimal iBGP overlay is known to be a NP-Hard problem, and we proposed solutions for pure IP networks (i.e. best effort traffic forwarding) in our previous work. However, most Internet providers implement their backbones by combining IP routing with MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) for QoS-aware traffic forwarding. MPLS forwarding incorporates traffic engineering and more efficient failover mechanisms; under this traffic forwarding paradigm, the design of traffic-engineered Label Switched Paths (LSPs, also referred as MPLS tunnels) shall be combined with the aforementioned iBGP overlay design. The present work introduces a coordinated design of both the iBGP overlay and the IP/MPLS substrates. Our contribution is the proposal of an optimal and resilient topology design for an IP/MPLS Internet backbone, which takes advantage of traffic engineering features to optimize the demands, while guaranteeing iBGP overlay optimality. We present a complete solution for a real world scenario, and we study the scalability of the solution for synthetic topologies, achieving encouraging results.

Performance analysis routing protocol between RIPv2 and EIGRP with termination test on full mesh topology

<span>Data access on a company is a very important part of an institution or a college. Especially in the present time, the internet has become an important thing in human life. With the existence of certain means there is a problem that will arise, needed solution or way out on a network that can be called protocol. Because an institution needs to choose network methods properly and safely.This study focuses on addressing the path/route of data packets to be sent will be governed by this routing protocol in the form of table routing. Routing used adip RIPv2 with EIGRP which will be compared on both routing protocol which is better against predetermined situation previous.The result of the research using CISCO Packet Tracer 7.10 software shows that EIGRP routing run on two topologies has faster convergence time speed with an average time of 0.01 - 0.02 seconds as well as the change of its routing table at once. Unlike RIPv2 routing that takes longer than EIGRP routing is with the time range from 0.01 to 0.19. </span>

Survey on handling passive nodes in MANETs

This work handles the topic ad hoc networking between mobile devices and the specific problem of network nodes that choose not to forward messages. These nodes are called passive nodes. In our literature review of of Ad Hoc Mobile Wireless network protocols we identified three approaches: (i) incentives for active node, (ii) isolation of passive nodes. (iii) automatic active node detection. Our analysis of the existing approaches shows the best approach is categorized within the first category: the algorithmic mechanism design approach of applying a Vickery Clark Groves (VCG) mechanism to provide incentive to nodes to be active. This is a truthful mechanism which means that the most lucrative strategy for nodes is to always tell the truth about the required incentive in order to forward messages and always execute this action. The reason this happens is that the node will receive higher incentive than what they asked for when they are chosen to forward messages. In mobile ad-hoc networks the protocol needs to update routing tables therefore incentive requirements can be centralized with minimal impact on the performance of the protocol.

RESEARCH OF SDN NETWORK PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS USING MININET NETWORK EMULATOR

Background. The implementation of the new modern services on existing networks requires replacement or modernization of the old equipment. This negatively affects the efficiency of providing users with new types of services and their cost. Therefore, the issues/tasks of implementing SDN technology in the construction of networks are in the center of attention of representatives of science-research organizations and telecom operators. SDN networks have the advantages of flexible scaling of the system without replacing existing server and network equipment, eliminating operator dependence on specific vendor solutions, and rapid implementation of the new network technologies and services. To determine the numerical values of indicators of the functioning of SDN networks and check their compliance with the requirements, it is proposed to use in working process simulation modelling. For these goals, the Open Networking Foundation consortium developed the Mininet network emulator, the elements of that are published publicly. The formation of the simulation model and the procedure for determining the performance indicators of the SDN network that uses Mininet has a number of features that are considered in the work.
 Objective. The purpose of the article is to build a simulation model based on the Mininet network emulator and to determine the performance indicators of SDN networks of various structures/topologies.
 Methods. Creation of a SDN network segment for testing process of its functioning in the overload mode of various communication routes.
 Results. The Mininet network emulator allows simulating SDN networks of a rather complex structure, change the performance of network branches and the amount of load in communication routes, to create a network-wide overload mode. During the simulation, it is possible to determine a number of indicators of network performance, such as the RTT (Round Trip Time) parameter for each route of communication, the bandwidth of branches and routes of communication, the amount of delay on network elements, loading of OpenFlow Switch ports/interfaces, network elements with the highest delay, the number of served and lost packets.
 Conclusions. Use of the Mininet network emulator is a fairly convenient tool for determining the performance indicators of SDN networks. However, there are also some problems. First of all, setting up the system's operability requires writing programs to ensure the interaction among standard elements from the Mininet library. Secondone, is when congestion occurs in the communication routes, the Floodlight Controller does not automatically balance traffic along the work-around route. This task has to be solved manually by making changes to the OpenFlow Switch routing tables.
 Keywords: Software Defined Networking; SDN; Mininet; OpenFlow; Floodlight Controller; OpenFlowSwitch; NFV; virtualization.

IMPLEMENTATION OF DYNAMIC ROUTING WITH OSPF (OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST) TECHNIQUE IN LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) AT SMKN 2 TELUK KUANTAN

SMKN 2 Teluk Kuantan has 4 (four) main lines of internet network. Of the four networks have their own configuration. Static routing applied in SMKN 2 Teluk kuantan for the four modems of the network has their own area, because it is not under one control of the modem to the Router. Static Routing in SMKN 2 Teluk Kuantan is very possible to be damaged or trouble itself on the network of each modem. Static routing problems are so complex in the form of routing information into the routing table that is set manually by the network administrator. Dynamic Routing is very possible to be implemented in SMKN 2 Teluk Kuantan. where dynamic routing has a basic routing algorithm of dynamic routing. Dynamic Routing enters routing information into the routing table through exchanging information with other routers and creates routing tables dynamically, on dynamic routing network administrators will not enter the entry route manually into the routing table. Routing Open Short Path First (OSPF) is a type of routing protocol that builds topology independently by choosing the best path then iji network quality if the best path is in interference and perform Quality of Service (QoS) against realtime data.

PredictRoute: A Network Path Prediction Toolkit

Accurate prediction of network paths between arbitrary hosts on the Internet is of vital importance for network operators, cloud providers, and academic researchers. We present PredictRoute, a system that predicts network paths between hosts on the Internet using historical knowledge of the data and control plane. In addition to feeding on freely available traceroutes and BGP routing tables, PredictRoute optimally explores network paths towards chosen BGP prefixes. PredictRoute's strategy for exploring network paths discovers 4X more autonomous system (AS) hops than other well-known strategies used in practice today. Using a corpus of traceroutes, PredictRoute trains probabilistic models of routing towards prefixes on the Internet to predict network paths and their likelihood. PredictRoute's AS-path predictions differ from the measured path by at most 1 hop, 75% of the time. We expose PredictRoute's path prediction capability via a REST API to facilitate its inclusion in other applications and studies. We additionally demonstrate the utility of PredictRoute in improving real-world applications for circumventing Internet censorship and preserving anonymity online.

Routing Algorithm in Networks on the Globe

Packet switching of data in networks is done by either the distance-vector or the link-state routing protocols. These protocols use the Bellman-Ford and the Dijkstra's algorithms re- spectively for the least cost path from a source base station to a destination station. For inter-network transmission, the path-vector routing protocol is in use. With progress of time, the network topologies are becoming huge in size, requiring large demand on book keeping of routing tables and transmission of the data packets dynamically to several other stations of the network by broadcast, increasing the load on the network. Here, assuming the router stations to be terrestrially located with links along the ground, a large network is assumed to lie on a spherical surface, and so the shortest geodesic path from source to destination becomes a great circular arc. For fast transmission, the cost of a link to a node is multicast to its neighboring nodes only for selection of the path lying as close as possible to the geodesic line between the source and the destination. As the arrival and dispatch of data packets at a nodal station occurs randomly, the cost of a link is estimated in this paper by the waiting time of a queueing process. This process at a router station is thus modeled by the Markovian M=M=c model, where c is the number of servers at the router station. If other commercial xed charge is involved for the use of a link, then that can be included in the total cost of a link. Finally, a method of search of a mobile destination is also presented using sphericity of the network. Algorithms for the near geodesic path, costs of links as waiting times and destination search in mobile environment are clearly presented.

Optimal route maintenance based on adaptive equilibrium optimization and GTA based route discovery model in MANET

Recently, routing is considered the main problem in MANET due to its dynamic nature. The route discovery and the optimal route selection from the multiple routes are established for the efficient routing in MANET. The major objective of this research is to select the optimal route for packet transmission in MANET. In this paper, four stages namely trust evaluation, route discovery, optmal route selection and route maintanance are elucidated. Initially, the trust evaluation is made by using ANFIS where the primary trust values are evaluated. The next stage is the route discovery scheme, in which the routes are established by Group teaching optimization algorithm (GTA). From the route discovery scheme, multiple routes are found. The optimal route for the transmission is selected with the help of the Adaptive equilibrium optimizer (AO) algorithm. Finally, the route maintenance process is established; if any of the routes fails for the broadcast it immediately selects the alternate optimal route from the multi-zone routing table for efficient packet transmission. The proposed approach is evaluated by various performance measures like throughput, energy consumption, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, packet loss rate, detection rate, and routing overhead. This result describes that the proposed approach outperforms other state-of-art approaches.

Heterogeneous polydentate mobile chelating node to detect breach in surveillance sensor network

AbstractNature inspired algorithms are common in routing and security in mobile wireless sensor networks (WSN). While most of the existing algorithms are bio‐inspired, chemistry inspired security algorithms are rare. Chelation is a chemical process where a molecule forms two or more bonds with an atom or a molecule to hold it strongly. Analogous to this chemical process, a chelating node in a mobile WSN is defined as a mobile node that forms more than one logical association with another node. The paper uses mobile polydentate chelating node, which uses multiple heterogeneous logical linkages with a rogue node, to ascertain non‐friendly behavior of a node to ensure detection and removal. The multiple linkage processes are based on challenge‐response using public key infrastructure, integrity of routing algorithm, routing table fidelity and data path tracking. This n‐dentation ensures detection of captured nodes as well as nodes planted by adversaries. The paper demonstrates the applicability of this process for a mobile WSN‐based border surveillance where the number of attacks is high and varied in its pattern. The proposed approach reduces false negative as well as false positive detection by its n‐modular redundancy. Simulation results are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of this scheme.