Route Request Research Articles

Bandwidth Constrained Multipath Routing Protocol for QoS Provision in MANETs

Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs) are composed of mobile nodes with limited resources and unpredictable node movement. With the on-going evolution in MANETs, provision of Quality of Service (QoS) has become a challenging task. In this paper, a node disjoint Bandwidth Constrained Multipath Routing (BCMR) protocol is proposed which considers bandwidth as the key factor to discover multiple paths for QoS provisioning. BCMR accommodates required bandwidth function in flooding route request packets. Extensive simulation study is carried out to investigate the performance of BCMR. Simulation results reveal that BCMR significantly reduces overheads, minimizes overall end to end delay and significantly improves packet delivery ratio.

Delay-aware power optimization model for mobile edge computing systems

Reducing the total power consumption and network delay are among the most interesting issues facing large-scale Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC) systems and their ability to satisfy the Service Level Agreement (SLA). Such systems utilize cloud computing infrastructure to support offloading some of user’s computationally heavy tasks to the cloud’s datacenters. However, the delay incurred by such offloading process lead the use of servers (called cloudlets) placed in the physical proximity of the users, creating what is known as Mobile Edge Computing (MEC). The cloudlet-based infrastructure has its challenges such as the limited capabilities of the cloudlet system (in terms of the ability to serve different request types from users in vast geographical regions). To cover the users demand for different types of services and in vast geographical regions, cloudlets cooperate among each other by passing user requests from one cloudlet to another. This cooperation affects both power consumption and delay. In this work, we present a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) optimization model for MEC systems with these two issues in mind. Specifically, we consider two types of cloudlets: local cloudlets and global cloudlets, which have higher capabilities. A user connects to a local cloudlet and sends all of its traffics to it. If the local cloudlet cannot serve the desired request, then the request is moved to another local cloudlet. If no local cloudlet can serve the request, then it is moved to a global cloudlet which can serve all service types. The process of routing requests through the hierarchical network of cloudlets increases power consumption and delay. Our model minimizes power consumption while incurring an acceptable amount of delay. We evaluate it under several realistic scenarios to show that it can indeed be used for power optimization of large-scale MEC systems without violating delay constraints.

A novel approach for mitigating route request flooding attack in MANET

Mobile ad-hoc network (MANET) is a temporary network in which the main requirement for establishing the communication path among nodes is that the nodes should be cooperative. However, in the presence of malicious node, the MANET's routing protocol such as AODV is vulnerable to different types of flooding attacks. The flooding attack can be continuous or selective. In the available literature, although many researchers have analyzed the network under continuous flooding attack but they have not focussed on selective flooding attack in which an attacker can sometimes behave as a normal and sometimes behave as a malicious. Most of the existing schemes use constant threshold value which lead to a false positive problem in the network. In order to address this issue, a new mechanism called as Mitigating Flooding Attack Mechanism is proposed which is based on a dynamic threshold value and consists of three phases. It makes use of several special nodes called as Flooding-Intrusion Detection System (F-IDS) that are deployed in MANETs in order to detect and prevent flooding attack. The F-IDS nodes are set in promiscuous in order to monitor the behaviour of the node. The simulation results show that the proposed mechanism improves network performance metrics in terms of PDR, throughput and reduces the routing overhead as well as normalized routing load.

Direct trust-based security scheme for RREQ flooding attack in mobile ad hoc networks

ABSTRACTThe routing algorithms in MANETs exhibit distributed and cooperative behaviour which makes them easy target for denial of service (DoS) attacks. RREQ flooding attack is a flooding-type DoS attack in context to Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, where the attacker broadcasts massive amount of bogus Route Request (RREQ) packets to set up the route with the non-existent or existent destination in the network. This paper presents direct trust-based security scheme to detect and mitigate the impact of RREQ flooding attack on the network, in which, every node evaluates the trust degree value of its neighbours through analysing the frequency of RREQ packets originated by them over a short period of time. Taking the node’s trust degree value as the input, the proposed scheme is smoothly extended for suppressing the surplus RREQ and bogus RREQ flooding packets at one-hop neighbours during the route discovery process. This scheme distinguishes itself from existing techniques by not directly blocking the service of a normal node due to increased amount of RREQ packets in some unusual conditions. The results obtained throughout the simulation experiments clearly show the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed defensive scheme.

An autonomous and efficient controller-based routing scheme for networking Named-Data mobility

The number of routes to store in Named-Data Networking (NDN) requires a huge amount of control messages to exchange because of the Named-Data and the non-aggregated prefixes. Multiple copies of content in different locations and content mobility worsen the scalability challenge. We propose a Controller-based Routing Scheme, named CRoS that runs on top of NDN and, thus, preserves all NDN features using the same interest and data packets. We define specific names and procedures for routers and controller efficient communication over NDN. CRoS adds router actions and avoids control message overhead by coding signaling information on content names. Our scheme enables data mobility and avoids the replications of routing information from controller to routers because they request the routes on-demand. Our proposal also requires low router memory size because it stores only the routes for simultaneously consumed prefixes. Furthermore, the scheme automates router provisioning and efficiently installs a new route, on all routers, in a path with a single Route Request to controller. We provide a protocol proposal description using the Specification and Description Language and we validate the protocol, proving that CRoS behavior is free of dead or live locks. The simulation results show that the efficiency of the proposed scheme is robust when the consumer-interest rate increases with additional throughput of more links. The scheme efficiency is close to optimum when routers operate with enough memory.

On the Complexity of Optimal Request Routing and Content Caching in Heterogeneous Cache Networks

In-network content caching has been deployed in both the Internet and cellular networks to reduce content-access delay. We investigate the problem of developing optimal joint routing and caching policies in a network supporting in-network caching with the goal of minimizing expected content-access delay. Here, needed content can either be accessed directly from a back-end server (where content resides permanently) or be obtained from one of multiple in-network caches. To access content, users must thus decide whether to route their requests to a cache or to the back-end server. In addition, caches must decide which content to cache. We investigate two variants of the problem, where the paths to the back-end server can be considered as either congestion-sensitive or congestion-insensitive, reflecting whether or not the delay experienced by a request sent to the back-end server depends on the request load, respectively. We show that the problem of optimal joint caching and routing is NP-complete in both cases. We prove that under the congestion-insensitive delay model, the problem can be solved optimally in polynomial time if each piece of content is requested by only one user, or when there are at most two caches in the network. We also identify the structural property of the user-cache graph that makes the problem NP-complete. For the congestion-sensitive delay model, we prove that the problem remains NP-complete even if there is only one cache in the network and each content is requested by only one user. We show that approximate solutions can be found for both cases within a $(1-1/e)$ factor from the optimal, and demonstrate a greedy solution that is numerically shown to be within 1% of optimal for small problem sizes. Through trace-driven simulations, we evaluate the performance of our greedy solutions to joint caching and routing, which show up to 50% reduction in average delay over the solution of optimized routing to least recently used caches.

Efficient evaluation of shortest travel-time path queries through spatial mashups

In the real world, the route/path with the shortest travel time in a road network is more meaningful than that with the shortest network distance for location-based services (LBS). However, not every LBS provider has adequate resources to compute/estimate travel time for routes by themselves. A cost-effective way for LBS providers to estimate travel time for routes is to issue external route requests to Web mapping services (e.g., Google Maps, Bing Maps, and MapQuest Maps). Due to the high cost of processing such external route requests and the usage limits of Web mapping services, we take the advantage of direction sharing, parallel requesting and waypoints supported by Web mapping services to reduce the number of external route requests and the query response time for shortest travel-time route queries in this paper. We first give the definition of sharing ability to reflect the possibility of sharing the direction information of a route with others, and find out the queries that their query routes are independent with each other for parallel processing. Then, we model the problem of selecting the optimal waypoints for an external route request as finding the longest simple path in a weighted complete digraph. As it is a MAX SNP-hard problem, we propose a greedy algorithm with performance guarantee to find the best set of waypoints in an external route request. We evaluate the performance of our approach using a real Web mapping service, a real road network, real and synthetic data sets. Experimental results show the efficiency, scalability, and applicability of our approach.

Topology Configuration and Multihop Routing Protocol for Bluetooth Low Energy Networks

This paper proposes a new cluster-based on-demand routing protocol to support multihop communication in Bluetooth low energy ad hoc networks. The proposed scheme includes the topology configuration procedure, topology recovery scheme, and on-demand routing protocol. The topology configuration procedure consists of node discovery, piconet configuration, and scatternet formation in a randomly distributed environment. The proposed on-demand routing protocol is designed to minimize the number of route request messages by forwarding them to a master and relay nodes in each cluster during the route request procedure. The performance evaluation shows that our proposed scheme substantially reduces energy consumption, which is the most critical issue on energy constrained networks.

Improved Selfish Node Detection Algorithm for Mobile Ad Hoc Network

Mobile Ad hoc network (MANET) suffers from different security issues. Ideally, not all nodes in MANET cooperate in forwarding packets because of non-malicious intention. This node is called selfish node and it behaves so due to its internal state such as limited energy concerns. Selfish nodes drop packets and that harms the process of routes establishment and relaying packets. Therefore, it is very important to detect these nodes and avoid them, which guarantees improving the performance of the overall network. Here, an improved scheme has been developed for detecting selfish node in Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing protocol (AODV) based wireless routing network. Two algorithms were integrated for assuring least fault positive decision of selfish nodes detection; first one is to avoid false positive of detection of selfish nodes in forwarding Route Request (RREQ) and second one is to avoid false positive of detection of selfish node in forwarding data packets. This scheme guarantees improvement in performance of packet forwarding in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) and End-to-End delay (E2E delay).

An optimization scheme for routing and scheduling of concurrent user requests in wireless mesh networks

Multiple-radio multiple-channel (MRMC) wireless mesh networks (WMNs) have been increasingly used to construct the wireless backbone infrastructure for ubiquitous Internet access. These networks often face a challenge to satisfy multiple concurrent user requests for data transfers between different source-destination pairs with various performance requirements.We construct analytical network models and formulate such multi-pair data transfers as a rigorous optimization problem. We propose an optimization scheme for cooperative routing and scheduling together with channel assignment to establish a network path for each request through the selection of appropriate link patterns. The performance superiority of the proposed optimization scheme over existing methods is illustrated by simulation-based experiments in various types of mesh networks.

アドホックネットワークにおける指向性アンテナを用いた適応型位置情報ルーチング

In mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), when information about the location of the destination node is known, efficient communication can be achieved by using location-based routing protocols. Even in location-based routing protocols, with omnidirectional antennas there is some redundant route discovery by blind flooding of route request packets outside the area between the source and destination. These redundant route discovery propagations can be reduced by using both a scheme of restricted flooding and directional antennas. In this paper, we propose a new location-based routing protocol using both restricted flooding and directional antennas, called Adaptive Location-Aware Routing with Directional Antennas (ALAR-DA). To investigate the performance of ALAR-DA, we compare it with existing location-aware routing protocols. Our simulation results show that ALAR-DA outperforms existing protocols from the standpoints of delay and route discovery traffic.

Maximum Power Plus RSSI Based Routing Protocol for Bluetooth Low Energy Ad Hoc Networks

This paper proposes a novel energy-conserving multihop routing protocol to maximize network lifetime and consume the battery in a distributed manner during route discovery in energy-constrained Bluetooth Low Energy ad hoc networks. Furthermore, a flooding avoidance approach is adopted by the proposed scheme to minimize the number of route request packets flooded. In addition, the proposed scheme maximizes network lifetime by using residual battery and RSSI as a route metric. The simulation results confirm that our proposed scheme has a surpassing performance with regard to network lifetime, evenly distributed battery consumption, and route discovery latency compared with the traditional on-demand routing protocol.

Sink-based cross-layer routing for image delivery in wireless sensor networks

With the advent of wireless technology, various applications in traditional wired networks have been adopted in wireless networks. To transmit multimedia in wireless networks, it is required to balance the power control and lifetime with the quality constraints. In this paper, we develop cross-layer mechanism based on power and modulation rate control for a multi-path routing protocol subject to total end-to-end quality level specified in terms of packet error rate and time constraint. The proposed sink-based maximal minimal residual energy (MMRE) AOMDV algorithm uses the information such as image size, node gain, noise, time constraint and residual energy of the nodes available in the route request packets to calculate the optimal power and rate vectors and the number of packets that can be sent by the source on each disjoint path to the sink. The source is freed from the complex algorithmic executions and hence the energy is conserved.

A stable marriage-based request routing framework for interconnection CDNs

A stable marriage-based request routing framework for interconnection CDNs

When Cloud Media Meet Network Function Virtualization: Challenges and Applications

Recently, network operators around the world have encountered a paradox. On the one hand, they have made enormous investments to handle the tremendous growth of Internet media services triggered by the ubiquitous penetration of high-speed wireless networks and the increasing popularity of mobile devices. On the other hand, these investments have not delivered the expected revenue, leading to declining profitability. In response to this paradox, network function virtualization (NFV) has been proposed as a revolutionary technology to transform network architecture and operations. This emerging technology opens up significant opportunities to reduce the cost of operating media services. In this article, the authors present a survey on this emerging topic. Specifically, they analyze the forces driving the evolution of the network architecture, then describe a novel NFV-enabled media cloud system from two alternative perspectives: an end-to-end view and a layered view. They then illustrate the architectural changes' technical challenges, which range from optimal resource provision and request routing to automated optimization. Finally, they substantiate the NFV-enabled media cloud platform with proof-of-concept case studies. By demonstrating NFV's flexibility and effectiveness, they show that the cost of providing Internet media services by NFV-enabled systems could be substantially reduced in practice.

A Novel Technique for Detection & Isolation of Blackhole Attack

All links in mobile ad-hoc networks are wireless and works independently, as there is no fixed infrastructure. In mobile ad-hoc network, network topology may change rapidly. The basic reason is the mobility of nodes, so it requires more security. This paper basically discusses the black hole attack, collaborative black hole attack & the technique to detect and isolate these types of attack. The collaboration of two proposed techniques i.e. fake route request with fake destination ID and multipath routing is implemented that helps in detection of black hole attack. These attacks may lead to the degradation of performance of the network. The algorithm implemented will improve the packet delivery by 25% and delay factor by 50% as compared to the conventional techniques. We also compared the results such as routing overheads, packet loss, energy consumption and throughput.

Performance Analysis of IEEE 802.15.4/Zigbee Networks Under Route Information Based AODV Routing Algorithm

In the field of wireless communication, zigbee is a latest technology in wireless network based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard. On IEEE 802.15.4 standard based zigbee network uses low power sensor nodes to ensure reliable, process, collect, and store the data. The sensor nodes have low cost, smaller in memory size and used in lower coverage area first two layers based on IEEE 802.15.4 standard are PHY and MAC layer. Routing protocols are divided in two categories that are reactive protocol and proactive protocol. AODV routing protocol comes under reactive protocol. It creates route between source and destination when needed. When source node has data to transmit to the destination node then it will create RREQ (route request message) and send to all neighbors in the network, when the destination node found or neighbor node found the route to destination then they will generate a RREP (route reply message) and forward back to source node. After the creation of route between source node and destination node they can exchange the data.

Analyzing, quantifying, and detecting the blackhole attack in infrastructure-less networks

The blackhole attack is one of the simplest yet effective attacks that target the AODV protocol. Blackhole attackers exploit AODV parameters in order to win route requests, and thus, attract traffic, which they subsequently capture and drop. However, the first part of the attack is often neglected in present literature, while the majority of attempts in detection focus only on the second part of the attack (i.e., packet drop). This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the blackhole attack, focusing not only on the effects of the attack, but also on the exploitation of the route discovery process. As a result, a new critical attack parameter is identified (i.e., blackhole intensity), which quantifies the relation between AODV's sequence number parameter and the performance of blackhole attacks. In addition, a novel blackhole detection mechanism is also proposed. This mechanism utilizes a dynamic threshold cumulative sum (CUSUM) test in order to detect abrupt changes in the normal behavior of AODV's sequence number parameter. A key advantage of the proposed mechanism is its ability to accurately detect blackhole attacks with a minimal rate of false positives, even if the malicious node selectively drops packets.

Crowd cloud routing protocol based on opportunistic computing for wireless sensor networks

We proposed a crowd cloud routing protocol based on opportunistic computing to improve the data transmission efficiency, reliability, and reduce routing overhead in wireless sensor networks. Based on the analysis of the demand of big data processing in wireless sensor network, the data analysis and processing platform for wireless sensor network are designed based on the combination with the cloud computing. The cloud platform includes the main nodes, the nodes, and the core nodes. There are the engine and the drive between the wireless sensor network and the cloud server. Secondly, aiming at the problem of data transmission in the cloud platform, we design an opportunistic computing model which is suitable for wireless sensor networks to minimize the weight of routing management and network overhead. Then, we design an opportunistic calculation model to guarantee the data transmission scheme of the cloud platform. Finally, by eliminating the factors that may cause the link instability, the crowd cloud routing protocol is proposed. The experimental results show that the proposed crowd cloud routing protocol has the functions of real-time and reliability and reduces the cost of routing request.

A new method to deduce counterexamples in secure routing protocols based on strand space model

AbstractStrand space model, an excellent formal analysis method, is still not effective enough when it is used to analyze ad hoc routing protocols. Counterexamples cannot be deduced directly if a protocol is proved insecure by strand space model. Based on backward reasoning and strand space model, an attack analysis method is proposed to find all possible attacks that cause nonexistent routes to be accepted. To begin with, a nonexistent route is assumed to be accepted by a routing protocol. Then, to decrease the complexity of analysis, an adversarial node abstraction process is carried out to make all the intermediate nodes in the nonexistent route turn into normal nodes. Furthermore, a combined analysis of strand space model and cross‐route attack is carried on the route reply phase of the routing protocol. Finally, all possible attacks that lead to the nonexistent route can be deduced after combined analyzing of the route request phase. Then, we take endairA—a classic secure routing protocol in ad hoc networks—as an example to verify the correctness and effectiveness of the new method. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.