Route Maintenance Phase Research Articles

Hybrid ant colony-based inter-cluster routing protocol for FANET

This study addresses the challenges in large-scale unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) clusters, specifically the scalability issues and limitations of using reactive routing protocols for inter-cluster routing. These traditional methods place an excessive burden on cluster heads and struggle to adapt to frequently changing topologies, leading to decreased network performance. To solve these problems, we propose an innovative inter-cluster routing protocol (ICRP), which is based on a hybrid ant colony algorithm. During the route establishment phase, ICRP uses this algorithm to identify the optimal relay node. This approach is inspired by the foraging behavior of Physarum polycephalum, combining factors such as the number of hops from the source node, the load condition of the node, and its weight in the pheromone calculation. In the route maintenance phase, ICRP uses a predictive repair and contraction mechanism to dynamically maintain routes, accommodating the high mobility of UAVs. Comparative simulations in OMNeT + + showed that this protocol surpasses ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), fuzzy-logic-assisted-AODV, and Enhanced-Ant-AODV routing protocols in packet delivery rate and end-to-end transmission delay. Furthermore, it showed superior adaptation to network environments with high-speed node mobility.

Reliable Air Quality Assessment in Dynamic Environments using Reward-learning Routing with Flying MANET Technology

<p>Air pollution poses significant threats to ecosystems, atmosphere, and the health of both humans and wildlife. It is primarily caused by industrial and chemical pollutants, leading to deterioration in air, water, and soil quality. As a result, effective air quality monitoring is crucial for environmental management. Flying Mobile Ad hoc Networks (FMANETs) offer a promising solution for intelligent air quality monitoring and assessment by employing unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to measure air pollutants. However, FMANET-based systems face unique challenges, including UAVs' three-dimensional movement, high dynamism, rapid topological changes, resource constraints, and low UAV density. Therefore, routing optimization becomes a fundamental issue in these systems. In this paper, we propose a novel routing method named RFMAN (Reward-learning-based FMANET) for intelligent air quality monitoring systems. RFMAN consists of two main components: route discovery and route maintenance. In the route discovery phase, we introduce a Reward-learning-based mechanism to identify optimal routes, while also implementing a filtering parameter to refine the UAV selection process and reduce the search space. The route maintenance phase of RFMAN focuses on detecting and correcting paths nearing breakdowns, as well as promptly replacing failed paths to ensure continuous monitoring efficiency. The result section pictures that RFMAN outperforms other methods. Overall, RFMAN offers a promising solution for enhancing the effectiveness and reliability of air quality monitoring in FMANET-based systems.</p>

Traffic-Predictive Routing Strategy for Satellite Networks

To address the issues of uneven satellite network load and unstable link connections, a globally adaptive satellite network routing strategy based on traffic prediction (G-AODV) is proposed by enhancing the existing Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) protocol. To prevent heavily loaded nodes from becoming intermediate nodes, G-AODV introduces a traffic prediction mechanism in the route discovery phase. The routing request packet adopts the corresponding forwarding control policy based on the comparison between the predicted traffic load value at the next moment and the dynamic threshold. At the same time, a path replacement strategy is adopted to replace paths before node congestion occurs to achieve load balancing. Considering the unstable characteristics of the satellite chain that easily breaks, the route maintenance phase selects a path repair method by judging the node stability to avoid secondary breaks in the route. The simulation results show that in scenarios with different packet delivery rates, compared with the three comparative routing strategies, the packet delivery rate of G-AODV is increased by up to 20%, the packet loss rate is reduced by 22%, and the end-to-end delay is significantly reduced. In scenarios with different communication connection pairs, G-AODV’s packet delivery rate increased by up to 20%, the packet loss rate decreased by 18%, and the end-to-end delay was still reduced.

A Q-learning-based routing scheme for smart air quality monitoring system using flying ad hoc networks

Air pollution has changed ecosystem and atmosphere. It is dangerous for environment, human health, and other living creatures. This contamination is due to various industrial and chemical pollutants, which reduce air, water, and soil quality. Therefore, air quality monitoring is essential. Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) are an effective solution for intelligent air quality monitoring and evaluation. A FANET-based air quality monitoring system uses unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to measure air pollutants. Therefore, these systems have particular features, such as the movement of UAVs in three-dimensional area, high dynamism, quick topological changes, constrained resources, and low density of UAVs in the network. Therefore, the routing issue is a fundamental challenge in these systems. In this paper, we introduce a Q-learning-based routing method called QFAN for intelligent air quality monitoring systems. The proposed method consists of two parts: route discovery and route maintenance. In the part one, a Q-learning-based route discovery mechanism is designed. Also, we propose a filtering parameter to filter some UAVs in the network and restrict the search space. In the route maintenance phase, QFAN seeks to detect and correct the paths near to breakdown. Moreover, QFAN can quickly identify and replace the failed paths. Finally, QFAN is simulated using NS2 to assess its performance. The simulation results show that QFAN surpasses other routing approaches with regard to end-to-end delay, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption, and network lifetime. However, communication overhead has been increased slightly in QFAN.

SAOA: Multi-Objective Fault-Tolerance Based Optimized RPL Routing Protocol in Internet of Things

Several technologies are implemented for serving industrial information and controlling the process in which the increased complexity and allied fault failed to achieve a reliable transmission to activate the timely network. These data must be transferred from one node to another node without any fault or delay in their nodes. To resolve this problem, an algorithm named SAOA is proposed to communicate the messages from various services without any delay in their nodes. IoT with mobile sink node is simulated in the network based on the MoO4RPL objective and the phases involved in this strategy are topology, route discovery, communication, and route maintenance phase. The topology network is generated for network topology and the rank is computed based on the energy, trust, delay, fault tolerance, and link quality in the multi-objective route discovery phase. In the communication phase, the optimal route is selected using proposed SAOA with fitness function factors. At last, the route maintenance phase is performed, and the proposed SAOA has achieved a minimum distance of 53.807 m, maximum energy of 0.415 J, maximum link quality of 2.163, and maximum trust of 0.701, respectively. In the future, another algorithm is implemented in IoT applications with minimum modifications to evaluate the various metric values.

Trusted routing protocol for federated UAV ad hoc network

PurposeIn the final step, the trust model is applied to the on-demand federated multipath distance vector routing protocol (AOMDV) to introduce path trust as a foundation for routing selection in the route discovery phase, construct a trusted path, and implement a path warning mechanism to detect malicious nodes in the route maintenance phase, respectively.Design/methodology/approachA trust-based on-demand multipath distance vector routing protocol is being developed to address the problem of flying ad-hoc network being subjected to internal attacks and experiencing frequent connection interruptions. Following the construction of the node trust assessment model and the presentation of trust evaluation criteria, the data packet forwarding rate, trusted interaction degree and detection packet receipt rate are discussed. In the next step, the direct trust degree of the adaptive fuzzy trust aggregation network compute node is constructed. After then, rely on the indirect trust degree of neighbouring nodes to calculate the trust degree of the node in the network. Design a trust fluctuation penalty mechanism, as a second step, to defend against the switch attack in the trust model.FindingsWhen compared to the lightweight trust-enhanced routing protocol (TEAOMDV), it significantly improves the data packet delivery rate and throughput of the network significantly.Originality/valueAdditionally, it reduces the amount of routing overhead and the average end-to-end delay.

Design and Analysis of Improved Dynamic Source Routing Protocol in Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network

Background and Objective: The present issues faced by the transport systems include enormous traffic jams and congestion, unexpected road accidents, unwanted time delays, pedestrians' crossings on main roads, wastage of fuel, and many more. ITS and some other technologies work together to overcome such factors contributing to a much more desirable transport system. This paper aims to identify the security measures that could increase the security of the routing protocol and improve the performance of the DSR routing protocol. If the number of establishing links is frequently broken, then the performance of the DSR routing protocol is not very good. A new modified DSR algorithm has been designed that would help in reducing the network overhead and increase the network quality. A comparison between the performances of both algorithms has also been studied, and the results show that improved DSR routing protocol has better efficiency in parameters like end-to-end network load delays and packet delivery ratio. Methods & Materials: The paper mainly focuses on securing the Dynamic Source routing algorithm by designing its modified version and simulating it. We have Proposed Modified DSR and discussed so far that the basic functionality of the DSR algorithm, its advantages and disadvantages. The main drawbacks include the end-to-end Delay, network overhead and packet delivery ratio. Following is a modified version of the dynamic source routing algorithm, which tries to overcome all the limitations of the basic algorithm at a certain level. In the Dynamic Source Routing algorithm, the Route Maintenance phase is used for the successful propagation of the packet within the network. The nodes that are involved in the transmission acknowledge the receiving of the packet to the preceding node. Results and Discussion: The present study aims at modifying the existing algorithm and designing a new modified algorithm that has less routing overhead, less Delay in packet transmission and high network quality. Modified DSR routing algorithm is examined on the parameters like E-2-E delay, Normalize Routing Overhead, PDR. When we compare the performance of the proposed method with the Existing protocol AODV, and DSR at a number of nodes equal to 50 then we get the Proposed DSR, which has the least end-to-end Delay among all the three protocols. Conclusion: In this paper, acomparison of Exiting DSR and Modified DSR in terms of end-to-end Delay, routing load and packet delivery ratio is made. After studying the readings, the conclusion drawn was that there is less network overhead and a high delivery ratio in modified DSR as compared to the existing DSR algorithm. The corrupted and destroyed packets are detected by the receiver, and in DSR, the mobility of mobile nodes is moderate. Under certain conditions, bidirectional and unidirectional links can be accepted. DSR routing protocols are highly dependent on the parameters such as area size, packet size, packet type, and others.

A Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning-Based Optimized Routing for QoS in IoT

Abstract The Routing Protocol for Low power and lossy networks (RPL) is used as a routing protocol in IoT applications. In an endeavor to bring out an optimized approach for providing Quality of Service (QoS) routing for heavy volume IoT data transmissions this paper proposes a machine learning-based routing algorithm with a multi-agent environment. The overall routing process is divided into two phases: route discovery phase and route maintenance phase. The route discovery or path finding phase is performed using rank calculation and Q-routing. Q-routing is performed with Q-Learning reinforcement machine learning approach, for selecting the next hop node. The proposed routing protocol first creates a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) using Q-Learning. The second phase is route maintenance. In this paper, we also propose an approach for route maintenance that considerably reduces control overheads as shown by the simulation and has shown less delay in routing convergence.

An Energy-Aware and Predictive Fuzzy Logic-Based Routing Scheme in Flying Ad Hoc Networks (FANETs)

Today, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), also known as drones, have become very popular in military applications, commercial applications, and academic research. Flying ad hoc network (FANET) is a new type of ad hoc network, which groups small drones into an ad hoc form. These networks have unique characteristics, including moving in a 3D space, high mobility, frequent topological changes, limited resources, low density of nodes, and so on, which impose various challenges when designing a proper and efficient routing scheme. In this paper, we present a fuzzy logic-based routing scheme for flying ad hoc networks. The proposed routing scheme has two phases: route discovery phase and route maintenance phase. In the first phase, we propose a technique for calculating the score of each node in the network to prevent the broadcast storm problem and control the flood of the control messages, which have been broadcast to discover a new route in the network. This score is calculated based on various parameters such as movement direction, residual energy of nodes, link quality, and node stability. Moreover, in the route selection process, we design a fuzzy system to select routes with more fitness, less delay, and fewer hops for data transfer. The second phase includes two steps: preventing route failure in order to detect and modify paths at the failure threshold, and reconstructing failed routes in order to recognize and quickly replace these routes. Finally, the proposed routing scheme is implemented in NS2 to evaluate its performance and determine its efficiency. The simulation results are compared with three routing methods, namely ECaD, LEPR, and AODV. These results show that the proposed routing method outperforms other routing schemes in terms of end to end delay, packet delivery rate, route stability, and energy consumption. However, it has slightly increased the routing overhead.

Secure Enhanced Reactive Routing Protocol for Manet Using Two Fish Algorithm

In Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) implementing a secure communication is a critical task due to its nature of wireless, infrastructureless, arbitrary network. Its not organized by any centralized control. Each node in this network acts as a router. Routing plays a major role in the network data transmission. Various protocols exist for the purpose of routing process. On Demand routing is a category of routing protocol were routes are obtained only on demand. AODV is one of the efficient on demand routing protocol. In this work an enhanced protocol with security features, the Secure AODV- ESB (Secure Adhoc On Demand Distance Vector based on Energy level and Signal Strength Implementing Bayesian Probability) has been proposed for Mobile Adhoc Network. Its is an extension of the previous work AODV – ESB protocol, which is a modification of the existing AODV protocol. The AODV protocol works on two phases. The route discovery process and route maintenance phase. Major problem faced by AODV was the frequent route break caused by the dynamic mobile nature of the Mobile Adhoc network, which leads to frequent route discovery process. To avoid frequent route break AODV-ESB routing protocol was proposed, it adopts the energy level and Signal strength as parameters for the route selection for transmission of data. Bayesian probability implementation in the protocol increases the chance of adopting more reliable and optimized path. Another major issue in data transmission in the Adhoc network is the security. Securing data from access of the unauthorized person is a major responsibility of the protocol. This new secure AODV- ESB protocol protects against attackers by identifying the malicious node and eliminating them and also secures data by implementing cryptography using Two Fish Algorithm. This ensures secure data transmission in MANET more efficiently than the original AODV protocol. Analysis using the NS 2 Simulator proves that Secure AODV- ESB performs better than the previous work AODV- ESB.

A Multi Criterion Fuzzy based Energy Efficient Routing Protocol for Ad hoc Networks

AbstractThe routing protocol for an ad hoc network should be efficient in utilizing the available resources to prolong the network lifetime. A Multi Criterion Fuzzy based Energy Efficient Routing Protocol (MCFEER) for Ad hoc Networks selects the path on constraints like bandwidth, battery life, hop count and buffer occupancy. In the route discovery phase, fuzzy system is applied for optimal route selection by destination node leading to successful data transmission. Multiple stable paths are preserved in route cache for usage during the route maintenance phase. The results are competitive when compared with Power aware Energy Efficient Routing (PEER) protocol using standard metrics, which ensures better network quality and efficiency.

An Adaptive Protocol for Stable and Energy-Aware Routing in MANETs

In mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs), routing protocols are impaired by its nodes’ mobility, misbehaviour, and insufficient battery power. In order to overcome the above-mentioned impairments of routing protocols, in this paper, we propose a multiple routing metrics based stable and energy-aware routing protocol. In route discovery phase, our proposed protocol establishes a stable, secure, and energy-aware route from a source node to a destination node based on the multiple routing metrics derived considering mobility, energy level, and data packet forwarding statistic of mobile nodes. In route maintenance phase, the protocol monitors neighbours of the intermediate nodes so that it may minimally redefine the established route whenever a link gets disrupted or a node reaches a threshold value with regard to its routing metrics. A trust module is also included in the proposed protocol which gives inputs regarding nodes’ trustworthiness so as to keep a path as reliable as possible. Simulation results show that our protocol increases packet delivery ratio and reduces average end-to-end delay and average energy consumption in different MANET scenarios.

Accessing Data by Using Presence Cloud Based Solution for on Demand Services in Wireless Computing Devices

In this paper the main objective is to propose an on demand Quality of Service (QoS) routing algorithm. As mobile users are extensively growing the requirements for various applications may vary time to time, and it is the need to keep presence information of each mobile user up to date hence the approach for QoS routing may not be proactive. The proposed approach has two phases namely route discovery phase and route maintenance phase. When a source node has to pass data to a destination node with QoS requirements it starts with the route discovery phase. And when the data transfer is been finished and route is found it require to maintain path to destination which is been done by route maintenance phase. This is required by the mobile services and the network such as ad-hoc. This is very much desirable and required in mobile ad hoc networks and hence is done in the route maintenance phase.

Enhanced dynamic source routing protocol for detection and prevention of sinkhole attack in mobile ad hoc networks

Sinkhole attack is an active routing disruption attack in the routing layer of the mobile ad hoc networks. A sinkhole node attempts to entice all the network traffic towards it by broadcasting bogus routing information to other nodes in the network. On demand routing protocols such as dynamic source routing protocol and ad hoc on demand distance vector protocol are vulnerable to this attack. Sinkhole attack makes use of the route discovery and the route maintenance phases of these protocols. Sinkhole attack often facilitates other attacks such as blackhole attack, greyhole attack, wormhole attack and Sybil attack on MANETs. In this paper, we present a secondary cache based approach to prevent the sinkhole attack in DSR MANETs. The simulation results show that the proposed approach improves the performance of DSR even in the presence of multiple sinkhole attacks.

Energy-Balanced Distance-Based Routing Algorithm in Wireless Sensor Networks

In routing process, individual distance is regarded as the primary parameter in order to adjust the energy consumption. In this paper, we build a time and distance-based system model, and effectively design route setup and route maintenance phase. An Energy-balanced Distance-based Routing Algorithm (EDRA) is put forward to maximize network lifetime. Simulation results demonstrate that the EDRA effectively prolongs the network lifetime and reduces the energy consumption than other routing algorithms.

Simple Ant Routing Algorithm for WSNs Used in Power Line Monitoring

The special class of wireless sensor networks for monitoring power transmission lines may extend for hundreds of miles in distances. The sensor nodes in this class of networks are deployed along narrowly elongated geographical areas and form a chain-type topology. Thus routing protocols in such environments must be kept as simple as possible. In this paper, we present the Simple Ant Routing Optimizing Algorithm (SAROA) to offer a low overhead solution in optimizing the routing process. Four improved strategies were used in our approach. During the route discovery we have used a new local search mechanism, in which each node broadcasts a control message (FANT) to its neighbors, but only one of them broadcast this message again. During the route maintenance phase, we only use data packets to refresh the paths of active sessions. Finally, the route repair phase is also enhanced, by using a deep search procedure as a way of restricting the number of nodes used to recover a route. A broadest search is only executed when the deeper one fails to succeed. The simulation results show that the enhance algorithm can effectively jump out of the local optimum and satisfy the tolerable delay in network-wide data collection.

BAHG: Back-Bone-Assisted Hop Greedy Routing for VANET's City Environments

Using advanced wireless local area network technologies, vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have become viable and valuable for their wide variety of novel applications, such as road safety, multimedia content sharing, commerce on wheels, etc. Multihop information dissemination in VANETs is constrained by the high mobility of vehicles and the frequent disconnections. Currently, geographic routing protocols are widely adopted for VANETs as they do not require route construction and route maintenance phases. Again, with connectivity awareness, they perform well in terms of reliable delivery. To obtain destination position, some protocols use flooding, which can be detrimental in city environments. Further, in the case of sparse and void regions, frequent use of the recovery strategy elevates hop count. Some geographic routing protocols adopt the minimum weighted algorithm based on distance or connectivity to select intermediate intersections. However, the shortest path or the path with higher connectivity may include numerous intermediate intersections. As a result, these protocols yield routing paths with higher hop count. In this paper, we propose a hop greedy routing scheme that yields a routing path with the minimum number of intermediate intersection nodes while taking connectivity into consideration. Moreover, we introduce back-bone nodes that play a key role in providing connectivity status around an intersection. Apart from this, by tracking the movement of source as well as destination, the back-bone nodes enable a packet to be forwarded in the changed direction. Simulation results signify the benefits of the proposed routing strategy in terms of high packet delivery ratio and shorter end-to-end delay.

LOARP: A Low Overhead Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

Underwater wireless communications among underwater sensor nodes enable a large number of scientific, environmental and military applications. For example, autonomous underwater vehicles will enable exploration of deep sea resources and gathering of scientific data for collaborative missions. In order to make underwater applications possible, real-time communication protocols among underwater devices must be enabled. Because of the high attenuation and scattering effect of radio and optical waves, respectively, these underwater devices are based on acoustic wireless technology. The unique characteristics of underwater acoustic channel - such as distance-dependent limited bandwidth and high propagation delays, require new, efficient and reliable communication protocols over multiple hops to network multiple devices which may be either static or mobile. This paper proposes a new low overhead ad hoc routing protocol designed for underwater acoustic sensor network. The protocol performs route discovery when needed in an on-demand manner. It also characterises a route maintenance phase which tries to recover a failed route. Detection of route failure can generate a lot of routing traffic. The proposed protocol tries to minimize this routing traffic by detecting failure in a more intelligent way either by monitoring network data traffic (if present) or generating lazy acknowledgements (if necessary). Reducing routing traffic minimizes the chance of packet collisions which in turn increases data packet delivery ratio. The performance of the proposed protocol is measured in terms of network throughput, packet delivery ratio, average endto-end delay and control overhead. The results are compared to those obtained using similar on-demand routing protocols. Simulation results show that the reduction of routing traffic can improve the performance of the network.

Stable Routing Algorithm for Mobile Ad Hoc Network

Mobile Ad Hoc network is a multi-hop temporary autonomous system of mobile nodes with wireless transmitters and receivers without the aid of pre-established network infrastructure. With a great deal of different applications increasing, it needs to provide stable communication for such network. In this paper, a new routing algorithm is proposed which can dynamically estimate delay variety and calculate link stability factor. In the route discovery phase, it finds paths meeting delay requirement with greatest stable link. In the route maintenance phase, it effectively keeps monitoring network topology changes through delay prediction and performs rerouting in time. Furthermore, some enhancement strategies are adopted to control route acquisition latency and improve transmission quality. Simulation results show that it can meet with the delay requirement while decrease the routing cost. Comparing with other conventional routing algorithms, it can achieve higher packet delivery rate especially in rigorous network environment.

Simple ant routing algorithm strategies for a (Multipurpose) MANET model

A Mobile Ad-hoc Network has limited and scarce resources and thus routing protocols in such environments must be kept as simple as possible. The Simple Ant Routing Algorithm (SARA) offers a low overhead solution, by optimizing the routing process. Three complementary strategies were used in our approach: during the route discovery we have used a new broadcast mechanism, called the Controlled Neighbor Broadcast (CNB), in which each node broadcasts a control message (FANT) to its neighbors, but only one of them broadcast this message again. During the route maintenance phase, we further reduce the overhead, by only using data packets to refresh the paths of active sessions. Finally, the route repair phase is also enhanced, by using a deep search procedure as a way of restricting the number of nodes used to recover a route. Thus, instead of discovering a new path from the source to the destination, we start by trying the discovery of a new path between the two end-nodes of the broken link. A broadest search is only executed when the deeper one fails to succeed. We simulated our proposal and we tuned it to the optimal performance. We also compared it with the classical approach of AODV and other biological routing approaches. The results achieved show that SARA offers the smallest overhead of all the protocols under evaluation and presents an overhead reduction of almost 25% of the value achieved by the other proposals. SARA also presents the best goodput, specially for TCP traffic, but it needs more time to discover the routes.