Rothamsted Experimental Station Research Articles

Over 150 years of long-term fertilization alters spatial scaling of microbial biodiversity.

ABSTRACTSpatial scaling is a critical issue in ecology, but how anthropogenic activities like fertilization affect spatial scaling is poorly understood, especially for microbial communities. Here, we determined the effects of long-term fertilization on the spatial scaling of microbial functional diversity and its relationships to plant diversity in the 150-year-old Park Grass Experiment, the oldest continuous grassland experiment in the world. Nested samples were taken from plots with contrasting inorganic fertilization regimes, and community DNAs were analyzed using the GeoChip-based functional gene array. The slopes of microbial gene-area relationships (GARs) and plant species-area relationships (SARs) were estimated in a plot receiving nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) and a control plot without fertilization. Our results indicated that long-term inorganic fertilization significantly increased both microbial GARs and plant SARs. Microbial spatial turnover rates (i.e., z values) were less than 0.1 and were significantly higher in the fertilized plot (0.0583) than in the control plot (0.0449) (P < 0.0001). The z values also varied significantly with different functional genes involved in carbon (C), N, P, and sulfur (S) cycling and with various phylogenetic groups (archaea, bacteria, and fungi). Similarly, the plant SARs increased significantly (P < 0.0001), from 0.225 in the control plot to 0.419 in the fertilized plot. Soil fertilization, plant diversity, and spatial distance had roughly equal contributions in shaping the microbial functional community structure, while soil geochemical variables contributed less. These results indicated that long-term agricultural practice could alter the spatial scaling of microbial biodiversity.

Microbial Community Responses to Toxic Hydrocarbon Exposure

The microbial community within each living organism is essential for its healthy state. Even highly complex matrices like soil, depend on microorganisms to sustain and even improve plant development. Although it is a very robust and well‐equilibrated system, soil microbial populations are prone to changes of abundance caused by environmental changes. These community shifts may result in loss of groups related to biogeochemical cycles or soil structure. This work aimed to compare changes in soil microbial community driven by the amendment with crude oil. We used microcosms of two soils from Rothamsted Research UK agricultural station, being one a bare fallow soil, one a grassland soil and a pristine beach soil (tide line under Cyperus atlanticus growth) from Trindade Island ‐ Brazil. Soils were contaminated with crude oil at a concentration of 5% (w/w) and incubated at 26 °C for 20 days. We monitored CO2 emissions and extracted total DNA and total RNA. The DNA obtained was used for microbial profiling using the protocol suggested by Earth Microbiome Project (http://www.earthmicrobiome.org). The bioinformatics pipeline was executed as recommended by the Brazilian Microbiome Project (http://www.brmicrobiome.org).&#x0D; The preliminary results showed that the three environments are highly divergent about its microbial community even when they presented very similar CO2 emissions. The pristine soil presented more archeal individuals and a bigger community shift between the treated and non‐treated state, a sign of fragility. As future research we intent to evaluate the expression of genes related to soil services and related to degradation of crude oil hydrocarbon.We are thankful to Rothamsted Research for the support and to our funding agencies CAPES and CNPq.

Energy utilization and growth performance of chickens fed novel wheat inbred lines selected for different pentosan levels with and without xylanase supplementation

Different F5 recombinant inbred lines from the cross Yumai 34 × Ukrainka were grown in replicated trials on a single site in one harvest year at Rothamsted Research. A total of 10 samples from those lines were harvested and used in a broiler experiment. Twenty nutritionally complete meal-form diets that had 630 g/kg of wheat with different amounts of pentosan, with and without exogenous xylanase supplementation, were used to compare broiler growth performance and determine apparent metabolizable energy corrected for N retention (AMEn). We examined the relationship between the nutritive value of the wheat samples and their chemical compositions and results of quality tests. The amounts of total and water soluble pentosans in wheat samples ranged from 36.7 to 48.0 g/kg DM, and 6.7 to 11.6 g/kg DM, respectively. The mean crude oil and protein contents of the wheat samples were 10.5 and 143.9 g/kg DM, respectively. The average determined value for the kinematic viscosity was 0.0018 mPa.s, and 2.1 mPa.s for the dynamic viscosity. The AMEn of the wheat-based diets had a maximum range of 0.47 MJ/kg DM within the ten wheat samples that were tested. Xylanase supplementation improved (P < 0.05) dietary AMEn, dry matter, and fat digestibility coefficients. There was a positive (P < 0.05) relationship between in vitro kinematic viscosity of the wheat samples and the total pentosan content. There was a negative relationship between the total pentosan content in the wheat and broiler growth performance. An increase by 10 g of pentosan per kg of wheat reduced (P < 0.001) daily feed intake and weight gain by 2.9 g and 3.5 g, respectively. The study shows that the feeding quality of wheat samples can be predicted by their total pentosan content. Supplementary xylanase improved energy and nutrient availability of all wheat samples that was independent of differences in pentosan content.

The Role of Rotation and Nitrogen Fertilization Level upon the Economic Indicators at Wheat and Corn Crops in Condition of a Long Term Experience

Abstract Since 1843 when Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert started several long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research, up to now a lot of long term experiences have been developed in the world. In this research we analysed the economic impact of crop rotation and nitrogen fertilization level upon the wheat crop. The research was performed in a long term experiment established in 1981, in a bifactorial experiment, at Moara Domneasca Experimental farm where Factor A is crop rotation duration with 6 gradual levels, and Factor B nitrogen fertilization level with 4 gradual levels. This paper centralised the data collected in the last ten years (2003-2013). The results show: the increase in crop rotation durations determines an increase in the quantity and quality of production; the increase of nitrogen fertilization level leads to an increase in production; there is a significant linear correlation between crop rotation length, nitrogen and production; regarding the economic impact, the unitary production cost decreased along with increasing the crop rotation length and the nitrogen fertilization level.

Arable Crop Disease Control, Environmental Change and Food Security

Crop diseases cause yield losses, yet crop productivity needs to increase by > 70% over the next 35 years to accommodate population growth and changing dietary preferences1. Crop plants and pathogens interact in response to changes in environmental conditions. Recent predictions made by combining climate model data with an oilseed rape growth model and a phoma stem canker model suggest that yield will increase in the UK, especially in Scotland, whereas potential losses from phoma stem canker will be greatest in southern England2. Oilseed rape production in China is threatened by the possible arrival of Leptosphaeria maculans, a more virulent causal agent of phoma stem canker than the existing species Leptosphaeria biglobosa3. A strong correlation found between sulphur dioxide concentration and the ratio of Phaeosphaeria nodorum to Zymoseptoria graminicola in archived wheat samples at Rothamsted Research (1844 to date) suggests that subtle environmental changes can also cause changes in pathogen populations4. Ensuring future food security under environmental change is challenging and will require increased understanding of in planta disease processes. Effector-triggered defence (ETD) operates against extracellular fungal pathogens by R gene-encoded cell surface receptor-like proteins that trigger cell death only after a period of endophytic pathogen growth5. An example of this is resistance in oilseed rape against Pyrenopeziza brassicae that operates by preventing asexual sporulation. Exploiting such understanding and developing strategies to control biotic stressors are important to ensure adequate food supply for the future6.

The Park Grass Experiment and next-generation approaches: local adaptation of sweet vernal grass revisited.

Long-term ecological experiments provide unique opportunities to observe the effects of natural selection. The Park Grass Experiment at Rothamsted Experiment Station in Hertfordshire, UK, is the longest running ecological experiment that incorporates fertilization treatments and has been ongoing since 1856. In the 1970s, local adaptation was observed in the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum to the elevated soil aluminium levels of the fertilized plots. Gould et al. (2014) have utilized this system to reevaluate the extent of local adaptation, first documented nearly 45 years ago (Snaydon), and to use emerging molecular approaches to identify candidate genes for the adaptation. From their work, they identify several plausible candidate loci for aluminium tolerance. This work shows the power of long-term field-based trials in a scientific age concentrated on rapidly emerging molecular techniques often utilized in short, narrowly focused laboratory or controlled environment experiments. The current study clearly illustrates the benefits gained by combining these molecular approaches within long-term monitoring experiments that can be regularly revisited in a changing world and used to address questions on evolutionary scales.

Janet Hemingway: putting the bite back into insect vector biology

Janet Hemingway: putting the bite back into insect vector biology

English

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the leading crops for human nutrition in Europe and in most temperate regions worldwide. This crop is demanding in nutrients, among them nitrogen (N) is absorbed in higher amounts and its efficiency of utilization can be increased with a plant biostimulant use. The objective of this work was to evaluate the influence of different N levels and ways of biostimulant application on genotypes growth of wheat, tall and semi dwarf. The experiment was carried out, in 2010, at greenhouse located in Rothamsted Research Institute, Harpenden &ndash; United Kingdom. The design was in randomized blocks, with four replications. The experiment was a 3x2x2 factorial arrangement consisting by three ways of application using a commercial biostimulant and two N levels provided by nutritive solution and two spring wheat genotypes (Green &ndash; tall and Red &ndash; semi dwarf). Isolated effect of biostimulant use was not observed on fresh matter and dry matter of aboveground part and root; however, N levels affected same variables, except root dry matter. A significant interaction between biostimulant and N was observed on dry matter of aboveground part. No significant results were found for length, surface, diameter and volume of root after biostimulant application and different N levels in Green and Red genotypes. Seed treatment and leaf spray with biostimulant did not promoted effects on N and C content in aboveground part and root for tall or dwarf wheat; on the other hand, significant differences were observed when N was applied through nutritive solution. Biostimulant application did not promoted increase on growth, N and C content of aboveground part, metabolites production and components of wheat production. Use of N promoted increase on fresh and dry matter of wheat, except dry matter of root, moreover, additions were observed in its content in aboveground part of wheat. &nbsp; Key words: Semi dwarf, nutrients, plant regulator, root growth, content.&nbsp

Interview with Guy M. Poppy.

Guy Poppy was born in the East Midlands of the UK into a non-scientific family. He was the first member of his family to attend university, and he studied Biology at Imperial College (BSc 1987). His DPhil at Oxford (1990) introduced him to interdisciplinary research, an approach which has really influenced his subsequent career. He started his first lab at Rothamsted Research where he worked alongside inspiring colleagues such as John Pickett. Missing university life, he left Rothamsted for the University of Southampton in 2001.

Nutrient removal capacity of wood residues for the Agro-environmental safety of ground and surface waters

Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of wood residues in the removal of nutrients (ammonium-N; NH4-N) from nutrient-rich (NH4-N) waters. The water holding capacity of the wood materials was also determined. Carried out at Rothamsted Research, North Wyke, UK, this controlled laboratory experiment tested two wood residues; in length, one being 1-2cm and the other from 150 µm (microns) to 9.5mm. Although a wide range of studies have shown the effectiveness and performance of various absorbent materials as animal beddings, such as straw (cereal straw), woodchip (sawdust, bark or wood shavings), bracken and rushes, only few have focused on the NH4-N sorption/desorption capacity. The depuration capacity of wood residues from nutrient-rich effluents such as those from cattle bedded on woodchip or straw will be controlled by processes such as sorption (adsorption-absorption) and desorption of nutrients. Studies have reported the nitrogen removal capacity of woodchip materials and biochar from woodchip as well as removal of NH4+-N from domestic and municipal wastewater, farm dirty water, landfill and industry effluents. These studies have observed that the mechanism of removal of nitrogen is by either increasing NO3--N removal form leachate by enhancing N2O losses via denitrification (biochar as carbon source for denitrifiers) or by decreasing NH4+-N in leachate through adsorption to negatively charged sites. Results showed that although the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and surface area (SA) are both fundamental properties of adsorbent materials, no correlation was found with CEC and adsorption or desorption. Nor did changes in pH appear to be sufficiently important to cause changes in CEC. For this reason, osmotic pressure appeared to be a more predominant parameter controlling processes of adsorption and desorption of NH4+-N in both wood residues. Thus, wood residues high in NH4+-N should be avoided, as they could have an opposite effect in the adsorption of nutrients from nutrient-rich effluents. The results also showed that some wood residues (G30) had great capacity to adsorb NH4+-N to levels up to nearly 90% whilst demonstrating low desorption capacity of NH4+-N (less than 1%). These are ideal relevant features for an adsorbent material for the removal of nutrients (or heavy metals) from contaminated waters such us farm o industrial effluents, or for the depuration of eutrophic watercourses. This could help reduce the concentration of farm effluents making them more manageable, subsequently contributing towards the compliance of new environmental regulations. Keywords: nutrients, nitrogen, ground and surface water

Triaxial Testing to Determine the Effect of Soil Type and Organic Carbon Content on Soil Consolidation and Shear Deformation Characteristics

The purpose of this paper is to determine the effect of soil type and organic matter on the deformation characteristics of soil. We used triaxial testing to measure both the consolidation and shear deformation of soil. The novel application of this method was applied to soils from two experiments: on a clay loam and a sandy loam. The clay loam soil was from the long-term Broadbalk Experiment at Rothamsted Research, UK, where contrasting treatments had been applied since 1843. The sandy loam soil was from a straw incorporation experiment started in 1986. The clay loam soil from selected treatments from the Broadbalk Experiment had large difference in soil organic C (SOC) content due to additions of farmyard manure (FYM) or inorganic fertilizers for over 170 yr. There were no detectable differences in SOC or microbial biomass C in the sandy loam soil where straw had been incorporated. In addition to triaxial testing, we assessed soil physical condition with measurements of aggregate stability and aggregate tensile strength. From triaxial tests of the repacked soil, we found that soil type and SOC affected the compression characteristics. We also observed that deformation characteristics are more sensitive to small changes in soil management practices designed to increase the SOC content, than measurements of aggregate tensile strength, friability, or stability. We suggest that measurement of deformation characteristics is a potentially powerful approach for detecting or predicting changes in soil physical conditions as impacted by small changes in SOC content resulting from management practices.

Global research on soil contamination from 1999 to 2012: A bibliometric analysis

We evaluated soil contamination research based on a bibliometric analysis of 14,090 articles published in journals in the Science Citation Index and Social Sciences Citation Index bibliographic databases from 1999 to 2012, which revealed scientific outputs, subject categories and major journals, international collaboration and geographic distribution of authors and countries, keywords, and hot issues. The results suggested that research on soil contamination developed well with increasing scientific production and research collaboration. Environmental science, engineering environment, soil science, and applied microbiology were the most frequently used subject categories in soil contamination studies. Chemosphere was the most active journal in this field. The clusters of authors were more in the USA, Western European countries, China, Japan, and India. Q. X. Zhou of Nankai University was the most productive author, and S. P. Mcgrath of Rothamsted Research England published the most influential articles. The USA exceeded all other countries with the most independent and collaborative papers in research on global soil contamination. Heavy metal pollution was the hottest issue, and bioremediation is the most promising research topic in combating against heavy metal pollution of soils. The status of publication on soil contamination research described here is significant for researchers on soil contamination in their future work.

Assessment of core and accessory genetic variation in Rhizobium leguminosarum symbiovar trifolii strains from diverse locations and host plants using PCR-based methods

The nitrogen-fixing symbiosis between Rhizobium leguminosarum and host legumes is recognized as a key part of sustainable agriculture. A culture collection containing rhizobia isolated from legumes of economic importance in the UK and worldwide, maintained at Rothamsted Research for many years, provided material for this study. We aimed to develop and validate efficient molecular diagnostics to investigate whether the host plant or geographical location had a greater influence on the genetic diversity of rhizobial isolates, and the extent to which the core bacterial genome and the accessory symbiosis genes located on plasmids were affected. To achieve this, core housekeeping genes and those involved in symbiosis interactions were sequenced and compared with genome-sequenced strains in the public domain. Results showed that some Rh.leguminosarum symbiovar trifolii strains nodulating clovers and Rh.leguminosarum sv.viciae strains nodulating peas and vicias shared identical housekeeping genes, clover nodule isolates from the same location could have divergent symbiosis genes, and others isolated on different continents could be very similar. This illustrates the likely co-migration of rhizobia and their legume hosts when crops are planted in new areas and indicates that selective pressure may arise from both local conditions and crop host genotypes. The nitrogen-fixing symbiosis between Rhizobium leguminosarum and host legumes has been recognized as a key part of sustainable agriculture for many years; this study provides new tools to study rhizobial biogeography which will be invaluable for extending the cultivation of legumes and indicating whether or not inoculation is necessary.

Phenotyping and other breeding approaches for a New Green Revolution

Phenotyping and other breeding approaches for a New Green Revolution

Distinguishing between Lévy walks and strong alternative models: reply.

EcologyVolume 95, Issue 4 p. 1109-1112 Comment Distinguishing between Lévy walks and strong alternative models: reply Andy M. Reynolds, Andy M. Reynolds 1 Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 2JQ United KingdomSearch for more papers by this author Andy M. Reynolds, Andy M. Reynolds 1 Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, Hertfordshire AL5 2JQ United KingdomSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 April 2014 https://doi.org/10.1890/13-2212.1Citations: 2 E-mail: andy.reynolds@rothamsted.ac.uk Corresponding Editor: B. D. Inouye. Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume95, Issue4April 2014Pages 1109-1112 RelatedInformation

Changes in soil phosphorus forms through time in perennial versus annual agroecosystems

We compared inorganic and organic P fractions to a soil depth of 92cm in two long-term Classical Experiments at Rothamsted Research in the U.K. The predominant soil-forming factor that differentiated the sites was vegetation type. The Broadbalk plots feature annual wheat and have been in continuous production since 1843, while the Park Grass plots feature perennial grassland vegetation that has been hayed every year since 1856. To evaluate the long-term effects of annual versus perennial vegetation on soil P forms, we carried out Hedley P fractionations and microbial biomass-P fumigation-extraction analyses on soils from fertilized and unfertilized treatments of both experiments. In both P-fertilized and unfertilized soils we found an inverse relationship between pool sizes of actively cycling Po (0.5M bicarbonate+0.1M NaOH fractions) and recalcitrant Pi (hot conc. HCl+final digest fractions) with Po dominant in the perennial hay meadow and recalcitrant Pi dominant in the annual wheat. Microbial biomass-P in the surface horizons of fertilized and unfertilized perennial hay meadow was an order of magnitude greater than in annual wheat. To investigate how P fractions changed through time we conducted Hedley P fractionations on archived soils sampled from Broadbalk wheat in 1893, and Park Grass hay meadow in 1876. Since 1893, unfertilized Broadbalk soils experienced almost no change in P fractions in the surface 23cm, but substantial depletion in labile and recalcitrant Pi and Po in deeper strata. The Park Grass perennial vegetation showed greater depletion of surface soil fractions over time. When fertilized for over 100 years, almost all P fractions in the surface 23cm were enriched in both crop types, but below 70cm, only the active Po pool in Park Grass showed a substantial increase under fertilization. Even when fertilized, low available or occluded Pi fractions in both annual and perennial systems were substantially depleted below 70cm. Our findings suggest that herbaceous perennials maintain a greater proportion of native or fertilizer-P in relatively available organic forms compared to annual wheat. By reducing the fraction of P held in recalcitrant forms, P fertilizer requirements could be reduced

Characteristics and Drivers of High-Altitude Ladybird Flight: Insights from Vertical-Looking Entomological Radar

Understanding the characteristics and drivers of dispersal is crucial for predicting population dynamics, particularly in range-shifting species. Studying long-distance dispersal in insects is challenging, but recent advances in entomological radar offer unique insights. We analysed 10 years of radar data collected at Rothamsted Research, U.K., to investigate characteristics (altitude, speed, seasonal and annual trends) and drivers (aphid abundance, air temperature, wind speed and rainfall) of high-altitude flight of the two most abundant U.K. ladybird species (native Coccinella septempunctata and invasive Harmonia axyridis). These species cannot be distinguished in the radar data since their reflectivity signals overlap, and they were therefore analysed together. However, their signals do not overlap with other, abundant insects so we are confident they constitute the overwhelming majority of the analysed data. The target species were detected up to ∼1100 m above ground level, where displacement speeds of up to ∼60 km/h were recorded, however most ladybirds were found between ∼150 and 500 m, and had a mean displacement of 30 km/h. Average flight time was estimated, using tethered flight experiments, to be 36.5 minutes, but flights of up to two hours were observed. Ladybirds are therefore potentially able to travel 18 km in a “typical” high-altitude flight, but up to 120 km if flying at higher altitudes, indicating a high capacity for long-distance dispersal. There were strong seasonal trends in ladybird abundance, with peaks corresponding to the highest temperatures of mid-summer, and warm air temperature was the key driver of ladybird flight. Climatic warming may therefore increase the potential for long-distance dispersal in these species. Low aphid abundance was a second significant factor, highlighting the important role of aphid population dynamics in ladybird dispersal. This research illustrates the utility of radar for studying high-altitude insect flight and has important implications for predicting long-distance dispersal.

Stress: from cells to ecosystems

If there is something that we all know about in the 21st century it is stress, whether it's the stress of work, financial stress or the stress of getting the next grant funded; we are all familiar with that heart-pounding, race-against-time feeling. But this is a very modern perspective on stress.

Effects of plant pathogens on population dynamics and community composition in grassland ecosystems: two case studies

Grassland ecosystems comprise a major portion of the earth’s terrestrial surface, ranging from high-input cultivated monocultures or simple species-mixtures to relatively unmanaged but dynamic systems. Plant pathogens are a component of these systems with their impact dependent on many interacting factors, including grassland species population dynamics and community composition, the topics covered in this paper. Plant pathogens are affected by these interactions and also act reciprocally by modifying their nature. We briefly review these features of disease in grasslands and then introduce the 150-year long-term Park Grass Experiment (PGE) at Rothamsted Research in the UK. We then consider in detail two plant-pathogen systems present in the PGE, Tragopogon pratensis-Puccinia hysterium and Holcus lanata-Puccinia coronata. These two systems have very different life history characteristics: the first, a biennial member of the Asteraceae infected by its host-specific, systemic rust; the second, a perennial grass infected by a host-non-specific rust. We illustrate how observational, experimental and modelling studies can contribute to a better understanding of population dynamics, competitive interactions and evolutionary outcomes. With Tragopogon pratensis-Puccinia hysterium, characterised as an “outbreak” species in the PGE, we show that pathogen-induced mortality is unlikely to be involved in host population regulation; and that the presence of even a short-lived seed-bank can affect the qualitative outcomes of the host-pathogen dynamics. With Holcus lanata-Puccinia coronata, we show how nutrient conditions can affect adaptation in terms of host defence mechanisms, and that co-existence of competing species affected by a common generalist pathogen is unlikely.

Review of the strategies for the comprehensive food and feed safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants per se

EFSA Supporting PublicationsVolume 10, Issue 9 480E External scientific reportOpen Access Review of the strategies for the comprehensive food and feed safety and nutritional assessment of GM plants per se ADAS UK Ltd. & Rothamsted Research, ADAS UK Ltd. & Rothamsted ResearchSearch for more papers by this author ADAS UK Ltd. & Rothamsted Research, ADAS UK Ltd. & Rothamsted ResearchSearch for more papers by this author First published: 03 September 2013 https://doi.org/10.2903/sp.efsa.2013.EN-480Citations: 2 The present document has been produced and adopted by the bodies identified above as author(s). This task has been carried out exclusively by the author(s) in the context of a contract between the European Food Safety Authority and the author(s), awarded following a tender procedure. The present document is published complying with the transparency principle to which the Authority is subject. It may not be considered as an output adopted by the Authority. The European Food Safety Authority reserves its rights, view and position as regards the issues addressed and the conclusions reached in the present document, without prejudice to the rights of the authors. Published date: 3 September 2013 Question number: EFSA-Q-2012-00344 AboutPDF ToolsExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume10, Issue9September 2013480E ReferencesRelatedInformation