Root Zone Water Research Articles

Agronomic and environmental effects of forage-cutting schedule and nitrogen fertilization for bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon, L.)

Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon, L.) is widely used as a forage in ruminant diets owing to its nutritional value and its capacity to grow under various agroecological conditions. For the southeastern United States climate conditions, previous research on bermudagrass recommended the cultivar Tifton 85 for forage production and a monthly frequency for forage-cutting. Even though bermudagrass cultivars are known to positively respond to nitrogen (N) fertilization, the interplay of the forage-cutting and N fertilization rates is not well understood. As a result, there is not sufficient guidance for adequate harvesting schedules and fertilization management to optimize bermudagrass forage production. Hence, this study aims to clarify the interplay of biomass-cutting events and N fertilization rates on forage quality and quantity, and N footprint. The study used experimental data of bermudagrass Tifton 85 forage production under three N fertilization rates (i.e., high = 504 kg N ha−1, medium = 336 kg N ha−1, and low = 168 kg N ha−1), to calibrate and validate Root Zone Water Quality Model 2 (RZWQM2) for biomass weight and biomass N content. For each N fertilization rate, multiyear simulations of four biomass-cutting scenarios were used to investigate the joint effects of harvesting schedules and N fertilization rates on biomass weight, biomass N content, N use efficiency (NUE), and N leaching. Results show statistically significant effects of the biomass-cutting scenarios on biomass weight and biomass N content for both high and medium N fertilization rates. The interplay of biomass-cutting and N fertilization reflected differently on forage quality and quantity, and N footprint. The low N fertilization did not show any statistically significant effect except for the biomass weight. NUE values were higher with both medium and low N fertilization rates compared to the high N fertilization which showed a relatively high N leaching. The outcomes of this study can be used to inform bermudagrass cutting and fertilization options to achieve forage yield goals with an understanding of the potential environmental consequence of N leaching and low NUE.

Exploring the Effects of Irrigation Schedules on Evapotranspiration Partitioning and Crop Water Productivity of Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in North China Plain Using RZWQM2

ABSTRACTA significant basis for winter wheat production in China is the North China Plain (NCP). However, winter wheat production is severely hampered by water shortages in this area. Transpiration co‐occurs with photosynthesis, affecting crop water productivity (CWP). The purpose of this experiment is to use Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2) to study actual transpiration (AT) and evaporation (AE) under different irrigation schedules and then determine its impact on grain yield and CWP. In the 2019–2022 winter wheat growing seasons, four experimental treatments were set up: no irrigation during growth period (I0), irrigation at jointing stage (I1), irrigation at jointing and anthesis stage (I2) and irrigation at jointing, anthesis and filling stage (I3), and the RZWQM2 model was calibrated and verified in this experiment. A higher yield (7840.90 kg/ha for an average of 3 years) and the highest CWP can be obtained in I2 treatment (increased by 12.72%, 5.98% and 4.28% for an average of 3 years, respectively, compared to the other three treatments). The model has a good simulation effect on soil water dynamic change and plant physiological performance of the four treatments; the model showed that irrigation increased the simulated AE and AT; however, reduced AE/actual evapotranspiration. For the whole growth period, AT in I3, I2, I1 and I0 was 351.70, 317.30, 271.50 and 223.70 mm, respectively. Especially in the late growth stage of winter wheat, the AT in I3 was 65.20 mm for an average of 3 years, which was significantly higher than I2, I1 and I0 by 31.60, 13.50 and 10.00 mm, respectively. Thus, I3 increased AT at the late growth stage of winter wheat and resulted in an increase in grain yield; however, it did not significantly increase CWP. This study demonstrated that irrigation at winter wheat jointing and anthesis stages can improve the CWP to achieve the goal of stable grain yield and water saving.

Long-term potato response to different irrigation scheduling methods using saline water in an arid environment

Crops’ water requirement is generally higher than the annual average precipitation in arid environments characterized by scarce freshwater resources. While using saline water for irrigation can help sustain agriculture in water-stressed regions, several challenges arises concerning productivity and soil salinization. However, adoption of efficient irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation, irrigation scheduling, and deficit irrigation can help optimize water productivity and mitigate salinity problems in irrigated agriculture. In southern Tunisia, potato is considered among the main cultivated horticultural crops due to its high economic value while it is considered as a crop sensitive to salinity. This crop (cv. Spunta) was the subject of long-term studies (2002–2020) conducted during the fall period in the arid region of Médenine. The crop response to full and deficit irrigation with saline water was assessed for several seasons under contrasting climatic conditions. Scheduling using the soil water balance (SWB) method consisted of the total and/or partial replacement of accumulated crop evapotranspiration (ETc), as derived from climatic data and crop coefficients. The impact of decreasing amounts of irrigation waters on crop yield and soil salinity with waters having a salinity ranging between 3 and 7 dS m−1 was evaluated. Results showed improvements in yield (30% to 37%) obtained with the SWB strategy under actual farming conditions, supporting the use of this strategy for irrigation. Appropriate scheduling also seems to be a key element in saving water (15%–22%) and in reducing risks of soil salinization. In the dry environment of southern Tunisia, optimum supply seems to correspond to a replacement of 100% to approximately 70%–80% of ETc. Applying such irrigation levels resulted in a lower salinity buildup in the root zone and higher crop water productivity. Natural salt leaching seems to be more effective under a more humid soil profile. Yield decreases and soil salinity increases almost linearly (r2 = 0.60) with decreasing irrigation water amounts. Future work should focus on the integration of management practices when using saline water. Investigating the relationship and interaction between irrigation amounts, cultivar, fertilizer supply, and salt leaching will help in resolving productivity and environmental issues.

Species-Specific Root Distribution and Leaf Iso/Anisohydric Tendencies Shape Transpiration Patterns Across Heterogeneous Karst Habitats.

The driving forces of transpiration are not only atmospheric evaporation but also root zone water supply and stomatal regulation among species. However, the biophysiological drivers of transpiration remain incompletely understood in heterogeneous karst habitats. This study investigated the commonly coexisting tree species Mallotus philippensis and Celtis biondii in two typical karst habitats: rock-dominated (RD) habitat and control soil-dominated (SD) habitat. Over 2 years, soil moisture, transpiration, root distribution, and leaf water potential were measured. The results showed that soil moisture in the RD habitat was significantly lower than in the SD habitat. Transpiration patterns also differed between habitats, with species-specific distinctions driven by biophysiological traits. M. philippensis showed small hydroscape areas and its root system mainly distributed in the soil zone in both habitats. The isohydric behaviour and lower root density in the RD habitat drove M. philippensis to reduce transpiration in response to soil water deficiency. Conversely, C. biondii had large hydroscape areas and roots capable of penetrating bedrock. It transpired higher relying on ample accessible water through anisohydric behaviour and having a more robust root system both in soil and bedrock zones in the RD habitat. Our study highlights the critical role of root water accessibility and leaf iso/anisohydric tendencies in driving transpiration.

The Right Triangle Model: Overcoming the Sparse Data Problem in Thermal/Optical Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture

The simplicity of the so-called triangle method allows estimates of evapotranspiration and soil water content to be made without ancillary data external to the image and with just a few simple algebraic calculations. Drawing on many examples in the literature showing that the pixel distribution in temperature/fractional vegetation cover (NDVI) space closely resembles a right triangle, this paper shows that adoption of a right triangle shape further simplifies the triangle model. Moreover, it allows one to mostly avoid the problem of sparse or low-resolution data. A time dimension can be included showing that trajectories inside the triangle can provide additional information on root zone soil water content. After discussing some of the ambiguities in the triangle method, and the advantageous properties of the right triangle, a proposal is made to illuminate the relationship between thermal/optical measurements and root zone water content within the right triangle framework.

Modeling of cotton yield responses to different irrigation strategies in Southern Xinjiang Region,China

Southern Xinjiang region represents a prototypical oasis agricultural area, and cotton is the primary cash crop. The current cotton water productivity for this area remains room for improvement. In order to refine cotton drip irrigation strategy in Southern Xinjiang, this study combined field experiment with crop model simulation and prediction. In this experiment, two irrigation methods, furrow irrigation and drip irrigation, and different degrees of deficit irrigation were set up. The impacts of soil moisture on cotton yield and quality were assessed, with the additional utilization of the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2) for simulating irrigation scenarios and predicting cotton yield field data showed that during the 2021–2022 growing season, drip irrigation significantly increased boll weight, yield, and Water Productivity compared to furrow irrigation. The deficit irrigation with 90 % of full irrigation during the flowering period resulted in the highest yield among all drip irrigation treatments, while simultaneously improving the fiber quality. The RZWQM2 model was calibrated and validated using 2021 and 2022 cotton field experimental data, respectively. The calibrated and verified RZWQM2 model shows good performance. In terms of soil water storage, cotton yield and evapotranspiration. The simulated value output by the model is close to the measured value in the field. Model prediction data suggest that there is still room for improvement in cotton yield, accompanied by an increase in evapotranspiration. But deficit irrigation below 80 % of the full irrigation quotas poses a notable risk of yield reduction. Targeting higher yields, the predicted scenario suggests an increase in water application (irrigation quota:314.8 mm). Additionally, this study proposes irrigation regimes with water savings of 10 % and 20 %, with irrigation quotas of 290.5 mm and 266.5 mm during the growth period, respectively. Based on this study, we provide a more detailed and reliable water-saving scheme for cotton drip irrigation in southern Xinjiang region.

Driving Factors and Numerical Simulation of Evapotranspiration of a Typical Cabbage Agroecosystem in the Shiyang River Basin, Northwest China

Two years of field experiments were conducted at the National Field Observation Experiment Station for Efficient Agricultural Water Use in the Wuwei Oasis, Gansu Province. Based on the eddy correlation system, the evapotranspiration (ET) of the cabbage agroecosystem during the growth period was obtained and the main driving factors of ET changes were determined. The Root Zone Water Quality Model 2.0 version (RZWQM2 model) was used to simulate ET during the growth period. The results showed the following: (1) The ET of cabbage during the growth period was 260. 1 ± 24.2 mm, which was basically lower than other crops planted in this area. (2) Through partial correlation analysis and principal component analysis, it can be found that environmental and physiological factors jointly drive changes in ET. The main driving factors include gross primary productivity, net radiation, and water use efficiency. (3) The RZWQM2 model can simulate the ET of the cabbage agroecosystem well, especially in simulating the total ET value and its trend. The growth period ETs were 7.3% lower than the ETm. Cabbage is an important cash crop in Northwest China, and ET is an important component of the water cycle in the agroecosystem. Determining the main driving factors of ET is of great significance for the sustainable utilization of agricultural water resources in Northwest China. Our results can provide a scientific basis for the cultivation of cabbage as a cash crop and the development of water saving agriculture.

Root Zone Water Management Effects on Soil Hydrothermal Properties and Sweet Potato Yield.

Sufficient soil moisture is required to ensure the successful transplantation of sweet potato seedlings. Thus, reasonable water management is essential for achieving high quality and yield in sweet potato production. We conducted field experiments in northern China, planted on 18 May and harvested on 18 October 2021, at the Nancun Experimental Base of Qingdao Agricultural University. Three water management treatments were tested for sweet potato seedlings after transplanting: hole irrigation (W1), optimized drip irrigation (W2), and traditional drip irrigation (W3). The variation characteristics of soil volumetric water content, soil temperature, and soil CO2 concentration in the root zone were monitored in situ for 0-50 days. The agronomy, root morphology, photosynthetic parameters, 13C accumulation, yield, and yield components of sweet potato were determined. The results showed that soil VWC was maintained at 22-25% and 27-32% in the hole irrigation and combined drip irrigation treatments, respectively, from 0 to 30 days after transplanting. However, there was no significant difference between the traditional (W3) and optimized (W2) drip irrigation systems. From 30 to 50 days after transplanting, the VWC decreased significantly in all treatments, with significant differences among all treatments. Soil CO2 concentrations were positively correlated with VWC from 0 to 30 days after transplanting but gradually increased from 30 to 50 days, with significant differences among treatments. Soil temperature varied with fluctuations in air temperature, with no significant differences among treatments. Sweet potato survival rates were significantly lower in the hole irrigation treatments than in the drip irrigation treatments, with no significant difference between W2 and W3. The aboveground biomass, photosynthetic parameters, and leaf area index were significantly higher under drip irrigation than under hole irrigation, and values were higher in W3 than in W2. However, the total root length, root volume, and 13C partitioning rate were higher in W2 than in W3. These findings suggest that excessive drip irrigation can lead to an imbalance in sweet potato reservoir sources. Compared with W1, the W2 and W3 treatments exhibited significant yield increases of 42.98% and 36.49%, respectively. The W2 treatment had the lowest sweet potato deformity rate.

Influence of irrigation on root zone storage capacity estimation

Abstract. Vegetation plays a crucial role in regulating the water cycle through transpiration, which is the water flux from the subsurface to the atmosphere via roots. The amount and timing of transpiration is controlled by the interplay of seasonal energy and water supply. The latter strongly depends on the size of the root zone storage capacity (Sr), which represents the maximum accessible volume of water that vegetation can use for transpiration. Sr is primarily influenced by hydroclimatic conditions, as vegetation optimizes its root system in such a way that it guarantees water uptake and overcomes dry periods. Sr estimates are commonly derived from root zone water deficits that result from the phase shift between the seasonal signals of root zone water inflow (i.e., precipitation) and outflow (i.e., evaporation). In irrigated croplands, irrigation water serves as an additional input into the root zone. However, this aspect has been ignored in many studies, and the extent to which irrigation influences Sr estimates has never been comprehensively quantified. In this study, our objective is to quantify the influence of irrigation on Sr and identify the regional differences therein. To this end, we integrated two irrigation methods, based on the respective irrigation water use and irrigated area fractions, into the Sr estimation. We evaluated the effects compared with Sr estimates that do not consider irrigation for a sample of 4856 catchments globally with varying degrees of irrigation activity. Our results show that Sr consistently decreased when considering irrigation, with a larger effect in catchments with a larger irrigated area. For catchments with an irrigated area fraction exceeding 10 %, the median decrease in Sr was 19 and 23 mm for the two methods, corresponding to decreases of 12 % and 15 %, respectively. Sr decreased the most for catchments in tropical climates. However, the relative decrease was the largest in catchments in temperate climates. Our results demonstrate, for the first time, that irrigation has a considerable influence on Sr estimates over irrigated croplands. This effect is as strong as the effects of snowmelt that have previously been documented in catchments that have a considerable amount of precipitation falling as snow.

Study on Water and Salt Transport Characteristics of Sunflowers under Different Irrigation Amounts in the Yellow River Irrigation Area

The control of irrigation volume is of significant importance in arid regions of northwest China. Particularly, it has a crucial impact on the salinization of shallow groundwater areas. In 2022 and 2023, field experiments were conducted to test three distinct under-membrane irrigation treatments. These treatments were assigned water quotas of HW (27 mm), MW (22.5 mm), and LW (18 mm). The HYDRUS-2D model was integrated with a field experiment to accurately simulate the dynamic fluctuations of soil water and salt in the sunflower root zone. The model’s performance was assessed and verified using real-field data from 2022 and 2023, and the simulation results closely matched the measured values. This research also used stable hydroxide isotopes to assess the water supply from various soil layers at different time intervals in sunflower plants. The results indicated that the three different levels of irrigation applied under the membrane had a significant impact on soil water content. Specifically, there was a significant difference in soil water content at a depth of 0–40 cm (p < 0.05), while there was little effect on the water content at a depth of 40–60 cm (p > 0.05). After irrigation, the average salt content in the top 0–20 cm of soil decreased by 7.0% compared to the medium and low irrigation levels, and by 10.8% compared to the medium irrigation level. Additionally, the medium irrigation level resulted in a 10.8% decrease in salt content compared to the low irrigation level, and a 4.1% decrease compared to the medium irrigation level. During the same period, the soil salinity levels at depths of 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, 40–60 cm, and 60–100 cm in the area outside the membrane were measured to be 2.7~4.8 g·kg−1, 2.8~4.0 g·kg−1, 2.7~3.4 g·kg−1, and 1.7~2.6 g·kg−1, respectively. These levels decreased by 13.1~55.5%, 0.7~42.8%, −0.4~16.2%, and −72.7~7.5%, respectively. Following irrigation, the HW treatment mostly absorbed water in the 0–40 cm soil layer, while the MW and LW treatments absorbed water in both the 0–40 cm and 60–80 cm soil levels. The results indicated that the most optimal drip irrigation method beneath the membrane in this location was achieved when the amount of water applied was between 25–30 mm. This method demonstrated a combination of water conservation, high crop yield, and effective salt suppression.

Wastewater irrigation beneath the water table: analytical model of crop contamination risks

Wastewater irrigation alleviates freshwater scarcity. However, conventional (near)surface irrigation techniques directly expose crops to contaminants. Irrigating wastewater into shallow phreatic zones to raise the water table enhances groundwater evapotranspiration, while using the vadose zone as a bioreactor that attenuates contaminants through dilution, adsorption, and biodegradation. Nevertheless, contaminants may spread across the groundwater, soil, and vegetation. In this study, we focus on the crop contamination risks, and derive a simple analytical model to estimate crop solute uptake. Although crops are not directly exposed to the irrigated wastewater, contaminants (and nutrients) may spread to the root zone. Results show that crop contamination is primarily determined by the root zone water balance, and by solute dispersion and biogeochemical reaction parameters. The model contributes towards identifying hydrogeologically and climatically suitable locations for phreatic zone wastewater irrigation, determining acceptable levels of irrigation water quality, and evaluating crop contamination hazards against the fertigative value of wastewater.

Elevational Patterns of Forest Evapotranspiration and Its Sensitivity to Climatic Variation in Dryland Mountains

Elevational climatic heterogeneity, complex terrains, and varying subsurface properties affect the sensitivity of evapotranspiration (ET) in dryland mountain forests to hydrometeorological changes. However, the elevational distribution of ET sensitivity and its major influencing factors remain poorly understood. This study focused on the mid-altitude zone (1000–3500 m) forests in the Chinese Western Tianshan Mountains and assessed ET sensitivity to multiple climate variables, including precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (PET), from 2000 to 2020. To evaluate the multi-year mean and trends in ET sensitivity, multi-source remote sensing data and regional survey data were analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient, the sliding window method, and Kendall’s test. Furthermore, the relative importance of environmental variables (topography, geology, soil, and vegetation) was investigated. P and PET showed no significant trends, while ET exhibited a significant increasing trend (5.81 mm/yr, p < 0.01), particularly at elevations above 2000 m. Most forests (93.5%) showed a positive sensitivity of ET to P, and 70.0% showed a positive sensitivity of ET to PET, mainly at elevations of 1500–2500 m. Additionally, the trend in ET sensitivity to P decreased with an increasing elevation, with 64.5% showing a positive trend. Meanwhile, the trend in ET sensitivity to PET increased with elevation, with 88.1% showing a positive trend. Notably, 53.2% of the forests showed increasing ET sensitivity trends to both P and PET, primarily at elevations of 2000–3000 m with a mean normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of 0.56. Geological factors, particularly the hydrological properties of weathered bedrock, contributed the most (~47%) to mean sensitivity. However, geological and vegetative factors, including the NDVI and root zone water availability, were the main contributors (35% each) to the sensitivity. This study highlights the elevation-dependent sensitivity of dryland mountain forests to hydrothermal changes, with higher-elevation forests (>2000 m) being more sensitive to global warming.

Improving soil water storage with no‐till cover cropping in the Mississippi River Alluvial Basin

AbstractExcessive tillage reduces soil water storage and increases surface runoff. Cover crops can modify the effect of tillage on soil water dynamics, but limited information is available for the Mississippi River Alluvial Basin. This study was conducted to determine whether soil–water dynamics could be manipulated through conservation production systems affecting surface residue management. Effects of tillage (conventional tillage [CT] vs. no‐tillage [NT]) and cover cropping (no cover crop and Austrian pea [Pisum sativum L.] cover crop [CC]) on soil water balance during the CC season in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) crops were modeled using the root zone water quality model for a site near Stoneville, MS, on “Commerce” silty‐loam soil. Capacitance sensors measured soil volumetric water content to 120 cm during CC growth in 2019 and 2020. Field calibration of sensors reduced root mean square error from 0.05 to 0.03 m3 m−3. Pooled across years, NT increased volumetric water content in the 0–40 and 40–120 soil layers by 8.5% and 6.8%, respectively, compared to CT. Regardless of the CC treatment and cropping system, NT reduced surface runoff by 24.5% over its conventional counterpart, while soil water storage increased from 2.35 to 5.23 cm within the 1.2‐m profile, resulting in a 17% increase in consumptive use of water (evapotranspiration). CC treatments did not impact soil water storage and consumptive water use. The results demonstrate that NT systems can affect water dynamics by increasing infiltration and soil water storage in the humid subtropical region of the United States.

Tracing Water Recharge and Transport in the Root-Zone Soil of Different Vegetation Types in the Poyang Lake Floodplain Wetland (China) Using Stable Isotopes

Background: root-zone water transport is crucial in the water transformation from precipitation to groundwater, directly influencing soil moisture distribution and resource acquisition for wetland plants. Methods: This study investigated the movement mechanism of root-zone (0–80 cm) soil water in the Poyang Lake wetland, China, during a dry year. Hydrological observation and stable isotopes (δ18O and δD) were utilized. Results: The root-zone soil water content was low (2.9–12.6%) at the high site covered by Artemisia capillaris, while it remained high (25.2–30.2%) at the median and low sites covered by Phragmites australis and Carex cinerascens, respectively. The isotopic values of shallow soil water (0–40 cm) in the A. capillaris site followed the seasonal pattern of rainfall isotopes, indicating predominantly rainfall recharge. Rainfall was primarily transported by piston flow, with an infiltration depth of approximately 60 cm. Conversely, depleted water isotopes measured at certain depths in P. australis and C. cinerascens sites closely resembled those of rainfall, suggesting that preferential flow dominated. The average groundwater contribution proportions in root-zone soil water were 65.5% and 57.4% in P. australis and C. cinerascens sites, respectively, while no contribution was detected in A. capillaris site. Conclusions: Preferential flow and groundwater recharge occurred in the P. australis and C. cinerascens sites. They enhance the hydrological connection at the profile scale and are useful for maintaining a favorable root-zone moisture environment for wetland ecosystems in dry years. However, the hydrological connectivity between root-zone soil and groundwater was found to be obstructed in the A. capillaris site. This might be the main reason for vegetation degradation at high elevations in the Poyang Lake wetland.

Modeling root zone water and salt transport using matric flux potential based root water uptake distribution

It is important to delineate the root water uptake (RWU) response to salt and water stress for assessing future water availability under extreme climatic conditions. The process of RWU in salt-affected soils is highly complex and not well understood. The present study proposed a matric flux potential based non-linear RWU model capable of calculating reduced RWU in water and salt stressed conditions. The study incorporates a sensitivity analysis of the model's parameters. For the inverse estimation of these parameters, an objective function has been formulated, utilizing data derived from the highly sensitive model's response. The proposed objective function provides unique estimates for these parameters. Using this objective function in an optimization process, the model is calibrated with observed data obtained from a soil column lysimeter experiment conducted on berseem crop (Trifolium alexandrium). The parameters are optimized through the coupling of the model with a genetic algorithm-based optimizer tool. Simulated data for soil moisture, electrical conductivity, and percolation are then compared to observed data. The simulated model's responses are found to be closely aligns with the experimentally observed values. The RWU under four irrigation of different salinity levels is simulated. The results highlight a reduction in RWU compensation under high-salinity irrigation treatment.

Analysis and Research on Production Effects of Full-Film Double Ridge-Furrow Mulching with Polyethylene Film and Biodegradable Film Based on AquaCrop

Water is an important factor limiting the development of arid rain-fed agriculture. Film mulching is an effective way to ensure yield in arid areas. However, whether biodegradable film can be used instead of polyethylene film for agricultural production in arid areas is a matter of contention. In this study, AquaCrop model simulation and field experiment were used to analyze the production effect of corn whole film double ridge furrow sowing technology covering polyethylene film (PM) and biodegradable film (BM) in Dingxi City from 2016 to 2020. The results showed that the AquaCrop simulation data have a high fitting with the field test data, and the model was suitable for simulating dry farming in Dingxi City. The best sowing time in Dingxi City is to select the average temperature to be stable at about 15 °C (around 15 April to 25 April each year), and the yield is the highest after sowing during this period. Although BM can achieve environmental protection and energy saving, it is weaker than PM in water storage and soil evaporation inhibition in arid areas. The average yield, aboveground biomass, water productivity, and harvest index of PM were 63.95%, 18.57%, 76.35%, and 38.22% higher than those of BM, respectively. In drought years, BM water stress on leaf expansion, induced stomatal closure, and premature senescence were 61%, 17%, and 9.5% higher than PM, respectively, and the stress time was 28.5 d, 5 d, and 26 d, respectively. The maximum canopy coverage and effective root zone water content were 24.5% and 30.49% lower, respectively. In the wet year, water stress under BM only had a certain effect on the leaf expansion of crops but had no effect on the induction of stomatal closure and premature senescence. The maximum canopy coverage and effective root zone water content were 13.56% and 31.35% lower, respectively. The above studies show that BM has a certain ability to store water and preserve moisture, but the parameters of PM are better than BM. Especially in dry years, the crop production efficiency of PM is more significant. It can be seen that in rain-fed agricultural areas with rainfall less than 500 mm, biodegradable film can not replace polyethylene film.

Predicted Contribution of Snowmelt to Subsurface Drainage Discharge in Two Subsurface-Drained Fields in Southern Quebec and Ontario

Highlights RZ-SHAW model delivered a satisfactory simulation for winter subsurface drainage discharge. Snowmelt dominated the drainage discharge during the winter and spring snowmelt seasons in southern Quebec. Snowmelt contributed to 29% and 18% of winter and annual drainage discharge, respectively, in southern Ontario. Abstract. Late winter/early spring has been recognized as a critical period for subsurface drainage discharge and associated nutrient losses due to snowmelt and rainfall in croplands under cold, humid climates in North America and Europe. Although the detachment and transport processes of soil particles under snowmelt and rainfall are known to be different, studies quantifying the contribution of snowmelt to winter drainage discharge are limited. This study aims to investigate the contribution of snowmelt to subsurface drainage discharge at two winterized experimental sites in southern Quebec and Ontario, Canada, using observed data and the Root Zone Water Quality Model-Simultaneous Heat and Water model (RZ-SHAW model). The RZ-SHAW model was calibrated and validated against the measured snow depth and year-round subsurface drainage discharge data from 2021 to 2023 at St. Emmanuel, Quebec, and from 2000 to 2003 at Harrow, Ontario. RZ-SHAW demonstrated satisfactory Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency values (NSE = 0.50) for simulating snow depth, soil temperature, and winter subsurface drainage discharge. The calibrated RZ-SHAW model was used to simulate the contribution of snowmelt to subsurface drainage for the two sites from 1990 to 2022. The snowmelt was predicted to contribute 55% and 44% of the winter and annual subsurface drainage discharge for the cropland in Southern Quebec. In contrast, for the southern Ontario site, the contribution of snowmelt to winter and annual subsurface drainage discharge was 29% and 18%, respectively. Considering that snowmelt in Southern Quebec contributed a significant fraction of winter and annual subsurface drainage discharge, more attention should be devoted to adapting and developing new winter management for nutrient loss in future research in the region. Keywords: Cold region, Cropland drainage, Drainage partition, RZ-SHAW, RZWQM2, Snowmelt, Soil freeze and thaw, Winter subsurface drainage.

Characteristics and Influence Factors of Soil Water and Salt Movement in the Yellow River Irrigation District

Climate change and human activities lead to freshwater shortage, soil salinization, and food security crises in arable land. To explore the natural and irrigation factors on soil water and salt movement, this study quantitatively analyzed the dynamic characteristics of soil water and salt movement under precipitation, groundwater irrigation, and brackish water irrigation conditions for the next 30 years using Hydrus-1D model-based parameters obtained from the winter wheat–summer maize rotation experiments in the Yellow River Irrigation District. The results showed that precipitation was the key factor of climate change affecting soil water and salt migration, especially in the 0–20 cm soil layer. Under both SSP585 and SSP245 climate scenarios, rainfall in normal and wet years promoted salt leaching up to 1 m below the surface soil. But in dry years, salt washing treatment was required for the tillage layer to prevent salt accumulation. The higher the groundwater level was, the higher the soil water and salt content was in the 0–100 cm soil layer. In this soil layer, a 2 m groundwater level contributed 30% to wheat water needs, while a 3 m groundwater level contributed 18%, and no significant contribution was observed for a 4 m groundwater level. The salinity of the soil profile showed an overall increasing trend with irrigation using 1–3 g/L brackish water for 30 years. However, the salinity in the 0–100 cm soil layer was below the salt tolerance threshold of winter wheat and summer maize with salts accumulated in the 1–2 m soil layer. Considering the salinization of the root zone and crop water needs, it is recommended that the safe groundwater level for brackish water irrigation should be 3 m in the study region. This study provides scientific reference for groundwater–farmland ecosystems to utilize brackish water and treat saline–alkali lands.

The tradeoff between water savings and salinization prevention in dryland irrigation

Soil salinization is a global phenomenon that affects large tracts of arid farmland worldwide. It contributes to the loss of soil fertility, declining yields, and – in the most severe cases – land unsuitability for cultivation. Irrigation water applications are both the main cause of and the solution to, anthropogenic (or ‘secondary’) salinization because salt typically enters the soil column as dissolved in irrigation water and leaves it through excess water applications (e.g., leaching). Excess leaching, which places additional water costs in areas affected by water scarcity, can be achieved with different irrigation techniques and practices. Here, by complementing a process-based crop water model with a salt balance of the shallow soil, we investigate the tradeoff between root zone salinization and water conservation to limit withdrawals from the water source. We evaluate how such a tradeoff is achieved under different irrigation technology and excess leaching practices. Considering as a case study the cultivation of tomatoes in Egypt, we find that drip and furrow irrigation allows for better control of salt accumulation, thus preventing crop exposure to salt stress. Drip irrigation achieves this goal with minimal water applications because it maintains the soil wetter. Thus, the (rare) rainfall events find more suitable conditions to drain the excess moisture. Conversely, by using more irrigation water (and ‘less efficiently’), furrow irrigation allows for higher rates of soil drainage and salt leaching. The irrigation schedule typically adopted with sprinkler irrigation allows for soil drying, thus limiting the ability of rainfall events to drain the soil and leach its salts. Collectively, these results highlight the key role of irrigation technology and practices in the management of secondary salinity in dryland agriculture. Specifically, there is a tradeoff between minimizing water use and preventing salt accumulation in the root zone. Drip irrigation exhibits the co-benefit of achieving both goals, while furrow irrigation limits soil salinity at the cost of requiring greater volumes of applied irrigation water.

Simulating synergistic effects of climate change and conservation practices on greenhouse gas emissions and crop growth in long-term maize cropping systems

Understanding the impacts of future climate change and long-term agronomic practices on environmental quality and agricultural productivity is critical to the development of sustainable agronomic management approaches. Given these requirements, the present study’s objective was to evaluate the potential impacts of climate change and long-term conservation practices on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and crop growth. To project potential future (2065–2084) climatic conditions for a field under a long-term maize cropping system situated in Nebraska (USA), 12 different combinations of regional climate models × global climate models (RCMs-GCMs) were generated under representative concentration pathway 8.5 (RCP8.5) and a heightened atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration ([CO2]atm = 714.1 ppm). Then, employing a well-calibrated instance of the Root Zone Water Quality Model (RZWQM2), the effects of four long-term conservation practices were simulated under the 12 RCMs-GCMs. Compared to other climatic factors (e.g., shortwave radiation, wind run, and relative humidity), temperature, precipitation, and [CO2]atm played more important roles for future carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, global warming potential (GWP), soil organic carbon (SOC), crop yield, and total crop biomass. The sum of their relative contributions to GHG emissions and crop growth exceeded 83.9 % across all treatments. Under future climatic conditions, CO2 and N2O emissions increased significantly — 19.4 % ± 5.8 % and 26.6 % ± 8.9 %, respectively — compared to those under historical baseline conditions. Likewise, the GWP increased by 19.8 ± 5.8 %. Although rising [CO2]atm afforded limited benefits in terms of crop photosynthesis rates, rising future temperatures shortened crop growth cycles, resulting in a net decrease of 9.1 % ± 1.9 % in maize yield and 4.2 % ± 1.6 % in total biomass. SOC saw a net increase of 4.8 % ± 0.4 % under the future (vs. baseline) climate. Compared to residue removal with no-till treatment, annual CO2 and N2O emissions in the long-term maize cropping system were predicted to increase by 26.8 % and 27.9 % between 2065 and 2084 under residue retention with tillage treatment, respectively. Whereas crop yield and biomass were not significantly affected by residue or tillage management practices. The simulation method provided valuable evidence for management decisions to assess the synergistic effects of climate change and long-term agronomic practices on the environment and agricultural productivity. Further investigation is needed on the effects of other climate RCPs and agronomic management for sustainable agricultural production.