Root Sap Research Articles

Conservation of element concentration in xylem sap of red spruce

We investigated the chemistry of xylem sap as a marker of red spruce metabolism and soil chemistry at three locations in northern New England. A Scholander pressure chamber was used to extract xylem sap from roots and branches cut from mature trees in early June and September. Root sap contained significantly greater concentrations of K, Ca, Mg, Mn, and Al than branch sap. Sap collected in June contained a signficantly greater concentration of Mn than sap collected in September. Sap concentration was related to forest location for N and Mn. Variations in concentrations of N and K were significantly related to the interaction of tree organ and month of collection. Variations in concentrations of P, Cu, Zn, and Fe were not attributable to tree organ, month of collection, or forest location. Patterns of element concentration in xylem sap compared to previously published data on soil solution chemistry indicated a high degree of homeostatic control of xylem sap chemistry. This control likely represents a significant allocation of resources within the tree energy budget.

Reverse flow in roots of Sesbania rostrata measured using the constant power heat balance method

ABSTRACTThis investigation was performed to examine qualitatively and quantitatively the reverse flow in partially dried roots of Sesbania rostrata using the constant power heat balance method. First, a semi‐empirical technique for estimating sheath conductance of sap‐flow sensors without assuming that sap flow is zero at night was proposed. Sap flow measured with the heat balance method was compared with water uptake as measured by a potometric method. Sap flow was overestimated by 56·1% for a 3·3‐mm‐diameter root, and by 40·0% for 6·1 mm and 33·3% for 8·8 mm roots. However, high correlation coefficients between the rates of water uptake and sap flow demonstrated that calibration would provide reliable values for root sap flow. To detect reverse flow, a split root experiment was conducted using a S. rostrata plant with its root system divided between dry and wet compartments. Daily sap flow of the drying compartment declined whereas that in ‘wet’ root increased, suggesting that the decrease in water uptake by ‘dry’ roots was offset by the ‘wet’ roots. Reverse flow was observed at night in the root on the dry side of the container when the soil water potential was less than –0·30 MPa. The total amount of water released into the soil during the night period was estimated to be 22·5 g.

Resistance to root growth and changes in the concentrations of ABA within the root and xylem sap during root-restriction stress

Resistance to root growth and changes in the concentrations of ABA within the root and xylem sap during root-restriction stress

The root zone dynamics of water uptake by a mature apple tree

We report the results from a field experiment in which we examined the spatial and temporal patterns of water uptake by a mature apple tree (Malus domestica Borkh., ‘Splendour’) in an orchard. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) was used to measure changes in the soil's volumetric water content, and heat-pulse was used to monitor locally the rates of sap flow in the trunk and roots of the tree. We also measured the tree's distribution of root-length density and obtained supporting data to characterize the soil's hydraulic properties. The experimental data were used to examine the output of the WAVE-model (Vanclooster et al, 1995; Ecol. Model. 81, 183–185) in which soil water transport is predicted using Richards' equation, and where root uptake is represented by a distributed macroscopic sink term. When the surface soil layers were uniformly wet, 70% of the trees water uptake occurred in the top 0.4 m of the root zone, in which approximately 70% of the tree's fine roots were located. When a partial irrigation was applied to just one side of the root zone, the apple tree quickly shifted its pattern of water uptake with an almost two-fold increase in uptake from the wetter soil parts and a corresponding reduction in uptake from the drier parts. The response of root-sap flow to irrigation was almost immediate (i.e. root flow increased within hours of the irrigation). Following subsequent irrigations over the whole soil surface, TDR measurements revealed a surface-ward shift in the pattern of water extraction, and root flow measurements revealed a recovery in the uptake function of seemingly inactive roots located in the previously-dry soil. Via our root sap flow measurements, we observed two roots on the same tree locally responding quite differently to similar events of soil wetting. This observation suggests that there may be considerable functional variability across the apple root system. Our measurement-model calculations yielded similar results and stress the prime role played by the plant in modifying the root zone balance of water. Following an irrigation or rainfall event, root uptake by apple appears to be more dependent upon the near-surface availability of water than it is related to the distribution of fine roots.

The rms1 Mutant of Pea Has Elevated Indole-3-Acetic Acid Levels and Reduced Root-Sap Zeatin Riboside Content but Increased Branching Controlled by Graft-Transmissible Signal(s)

Rms1 is one of the series of five ramosus loci in pea (Pisum sativum L.) in which recessive mutant alleles confer increased branching at basal and aerial vegetative nodes. Shoots of the nonallelic rms1 and rms2 mutants are phenotypically similar in most respects. However, we found an up to 40-fold difference in root-sap zeatin riboside ([9R]Z) concentration between rms1 and rms2 plants. Compared with wild-type (WT) plants, the concentration of [9R]Z in rms1 root sap was very low and the concentration in rms2 root sap was slightly elevated. To our knowledge, the rms1 mutant is therefore the second ramosus mutant (rms4 being the first) to be characterized with low root-sap [9R]Z content. Like rms2, the apical bud and upper nodes of rms1 plants contain elevated indole-3-acetic acid levels compared with WT shoots. Therefore, the rms1 mutant demonstrates that high shoot auxin levels and low root-sap cytokinin levels are not necessarily correlated with increased apical dominance in pea. A graft-transmissible basis of action has been demonstrated for both mutants from reciprocal grafts between mutant and WT plants. Branching was also largely inhibited in rms1 shoots when grafted to rms2 rootstocks, but was not inhibited in rms2 shoots grafted to rms1 rootstocks. These grafting results are discussed, along with the conclusion that hormone-like signals other than auxin and cytokinin are also involved.

Root Sap Flow in Sesbania rostrata during Soil Drying

Water movement in plant roots, under conditions in which part of the root system is in wet soil and part is in dry soil, was examined using Sesbania rostrata. A Sesbania plant was grown in a wooden box with two compartments which divided the root system. After a complete root system was established in each compartment, one compartment was allowed to dry, while the other was watered regularly. The heat balance method was used to monitor sap flow in a thick root in each compartment and in the stem. Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) was used to monitor changes in the soil's volumetric water content. Over the drying period daytime sap flow in the dry root declined, while that in wet root increased. This suggested that when transpiration is active, a decrease in water uptake by dry roots is compensated by wet roots. Reverse flow was observed at night when soil water content was less than 5.7% which corresponded to water potential of 0.51MPa for the soil.

Manganese deficiency of silver fir trees (Abies alba) at a reforested site in the Jura mountains, Switzerland: aspects of cause and effect.

We examined manganese uptake and translocation in 30-year-old silver fir trees (Abies alba Mill.) showing severe symptoms of needle chlorosis by analyzing both xylem and phloem sap of shoots and an extract of root sap originating from both xylem and phloem elements. Manganese concentrations in shoot xylem and phloem sap were significantly lower in chlorotic trees than in neighboring healthy trees. The Mn concentration of root sap was also lower in these Mn-deficient trees than in healthy trees, indicating reduced Mn uptake by Mn-deficient trees. Although Mn deficiency had no effect on the Mn concentration of whole roots, separation of root tissue into root cortex and stele (wood) suggested impaired translocation of Mn from the cortex to the stele in Mn-deficient trees. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) tests indicated that there was no decrease in reducing capacity of the fine roots (< 1 mm in diameter) of Mn-deficient trees. Fine roots of Mn-deficient trees contained significantly more organic acids than fine roots of healthy trees, including increased concentrations of malic, quinic, trans-acontic and formic acid; however, concentrations of pyruvic and acetic acid were lower than in fine roots of healthy trees. The total amounts of organic acids in the rhizospheric soil were similar for healthy and Mn-deficient trees. Pyruvic acid concentration was significantly increased in the rhizospheric soil of Mn-deficient trees, and concentrations of simple aliphatic acids like formic and acetic acid also tended to be higher in the rhizospheric soil of Mn-deficient trees. Both pH and water content were higher in bulk soil and rhizospheric soil around Mn-deficient trees compared with soil around healthy trees. Although lower concentrations of exchangeable Mn were found in the soil around Mn-deficient trees, the active Mn concentration (sum of exchangeable and reducible Mn) did not differ between healthy and Mn-deficient trees. A considerable proportion of manganese was in an oxidized form in the soil around Mn-deficient trees.

Growth, water relations and solute accumulation in osmotically stressed seedlings of the tropical tree Colophospermum mopane.

Root and hypocotyl elongation, water status and solute accumulation were studied in osmotically stressed seedlings of the tropical tree, Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth.) Kirk ex J. Léonard, which grows in hot arid areas of southern and central Africa. Seeds were imbibed for 24 h and then subjected to a polyethylene-glycol-generated osmotic stress of -0.03 (control), -0.2, -0.8, -1.6 or -2.0 MPa for 60 h. Seedlings subjected to moderate water stress (-0.2 MPa) had higher root growth rates (2.41 +/- 0.24 mm h(-1)), greater final root lengths (111 +/- 3.8 mm) and longer cells immediately behind the root elongation zone than control seedlings (1.70 +/- 0.15 mm h(-1) and 93 +/- 3.9 mm, respectively). Root lengths of seedlings in the -0.8 and -1.6 MPa treatments were similar to those of control seedlings, whereas the -2.0 MPa seedlings had significantly shorter roots. Both root and hypocotyl tissues exhibited considerable osmotic adjustment to the external water potential treatments. Seedlings in the -0.03, -0.2, and -0.8 MPa treatments had similar cell turgor pressures (0.69 +/- 0.10, 0.68 +/- 0.07 and 0.57 +/- 0.04 MPa, respectively), whereas the -2.0 MPa treatment lowered cell turgor pressure to 0.17 +/- 0.04 MPa. Root vacuolar osmotic pressures were generally similar to sap osmotic pressures, indicating that the increased root elongation observed in moderately water-stressed seedlings was not caused by increased turgor pressure difference. Neutral-fraction solute concentrations, including the osmoticum pinitol, increased approximately two-fold in root sap in response to a low external water potential. In hypocotyl sap of seedlings in the -2.0 MPa treatment, pinitol more than doubled, sucrose increased from about 2 to 75 mol m(-3) but glucose and fructose remained unchanged and, as a result, total sugars increased only slightly. The benefits of rapid early root elongation and osmoticum accumulation under conditions of water stress are discussed in relation to seedling establishment.

Examination of sclerotial germination in Sclerotinia minor with an in vitro model

An in vitro model was developed to examine the effect of surface microflora and exogenous nutrient on sclerotial germination of Sclerotinia minor. Germinated sclerotia were identified by the presence of appressoria on the plastic Petri dish. Surface sterilised field sclerotia germinated at maximum rates on water agar, but unsterilised sclerotia failed to germinate, even after drying and rewetting, indicating that sclerotia of S. minor are unlikely to germinate spontaneously in the presence of soil microflora. Partial surface sterilisation gave intermediate germination rates, which were enhanced two- to four-fold by treatment with sunflower root sap. There was no significant difference in the germination response to root sap from susceptible and resistant sunflower lines, but germination rates were highest with root nutrient obtained from plants during vegetative growth. A positive germination response to peptone and an amino acid mixture implicated amino acids as germination stimuli. Germination of field sclerotia required incubation with root sap for more than 3 days, suggesting that prolonged exposure of sclerotia to root exudates may be required for the onset of stem rot in sunflowers. This is discussed in relation to the dynamics of root growth. Keywords: exogenous nutrient, field sclerotia, germination stimulus.

Use of Antiserum to a New York Isolate of Wheat Spindle Streak Mosaic Virus to Detect Related Bymoviruses from North America, Europe, and Asia

Wheat spindle streak mosaic bymovirus (WSSMV) is a widespread and damaging pathogen of winter wheat in North America. The diagnosis of this viral disease has relied primarily on the observation of transient symptoms that may be confused with other biotic and abiotic stresses. Virus was purified from field-infected wheat plants grown in New York and a polyclonal antiserum was produced that by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay detected as little as 0.25 ng WSSMV/μL leaf or root sap. The antiserum reacted to bymoviruses from North America, Europe, and Asia, including isolates of WSSMV, wheat yellow mosaic virus, and barley yellow mosaic virus, but did not detect oat mosaic virus of barley mild mosaic virus. This corroborates previous findings on serological relationships within the bymovirus group. The antiserum did not react with other cereal viruses tested, including soilborne wheat mosaic furovirus, wheat streak mosaic rymovirus, an dbarley yellow dwarf luteovirus. The availability of this antiserum will facilitate detection of bymoviruses and enhance research on biology, epidemiology, and management of the diseases caused by these fungal-vectored viruses

Structure of ferulenol derivatives from Ferula communis var. genuina

Abstract From the root sap of Ferula communis var. genuina, two 3-farnesyl, 4-hydroxy coumarin derivatives; e-hydroxyferulenol and ferulenoloxyferulenol were isolated. Their structures were determined on the basis of a spectral analysis, including mass, IR, 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy. NMR assignments arose from 1H-1H, 1H-1H LR, 1H-13C and 1H-13C LR 2D COSY data.

Production and some characteristics of monoclonal antibodies against beet necrotic yellow vein virus

SUMMARYFour rat monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) specific for beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) were produced. In indirect ELISA, all four MAbs reacted strongly with BNYVV infected plant leaf extracts (19 isolates from eight countries) but they did not react with beet soil‐borne virus (BSBV), an unnamed rod‐shaped soil‐borne beet virus isolate (86 ‐ 109) from Sweden or barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV). However, two of the MAbs, MAFF 6 and MAFF 7 did not detect BNYVV in ELISA of infected sugar beet roots whereas MAbs MAFF 8 and MAFF 9 did detect virus in root extracts.In electro‐blot immunoassay (EBIA), MAFF 6 and MAFF 7 readily detected BNYVV coat protein from leaf extracts whereas MAFF 8 and MAFF 9 reacted only weakly. None of the MAbs reacted with BSBV, 86 ‐ 109, BSMV or plum pox virus in EBIA. MAFF 6 coated BNYVV particles which were trapped from infected leaf or root sap on to electron microscope grids by polyclonal antibodies. MAFF 6 was partially purified from tissue culture supernatant fluid by cation exchange chromatography and the preparation used to coat microtitre plates and successfully trap BNYVV in ELISA of leaf sap extracts.

The Xylem Sap of Maize Roots: Its Collection, Composition and Formation

Three methods of sampling xylem sap of maize roots were compared: sap bleeding from the stem cut just above the ground; sap bleeding from the cut tops of roots still undisturbed in the ground; and sap aspirated from excavated roots under reduced pressure. The bleeding saps were often unobtainable. When their composition was measured with time from cutting, the concentrations of the major solutes approximately doubled in 2 h. Aspirated sap was chosen as the most reliable sample of root xylem contents. Solute concentrations of the saps showed great variability between individual roots for all solutes, but on average the concentrations found (in �mol g-1 sap) were: total amino acids, 1.8; nitrate, 1.8; sugars (mainly sucrose), 5.4; total organic acids, 18.3. Individual amino acids also varied greatly between roots. Glutamine, aspartic acid and serine were generally most abundant. The principal organic acid found was malic, approximately 8 �mol g-1. From these analyses the ratios of carbon in the fractions (sugars : amino acids : organic acids) = (44 : 6 : 50). 14Carbon pulse fed to a leaf appeared in the root sap within 30 min, rose to a peak at 4-6 h, and declined slowly over a week. During all this time the neutral, cation and anion fractions were sensibly constant in the proportions 86 : 10 : 4. The 14C therefore did not move towards the equilibrium of 12C-compounds in the sap. It is argued that the results do not support a hypothesis of formation of amino carbon from recent assimilate and reduced nitrate in the roots and an export of this to the shoot in the transpiration stream.

Cytokinin Metabolism in Tomato Plants. I. Metabolites of Zeatin in Decapitated Roots

Decapitated tomato plants were supplied via the roots with {8- 14 C}- trans zeatin in a nutrient solution for a period of 24 h. After this time root material, the root sap produced during the 24 h period and the nutrient solution remaining at the end of the experiment were analysed for cytokinin activity. HPLC techniques and chemical and enzymatic treatments were used to tentatively identify radioactive metabolites formed. Uptake of zeatin by the plants was complete and metabolism within the root tissues was both rapid and extensive, with at least 10 metabolites of zeatin being detected. Zeatin itself could not be recovered. Phosphorylation seemed to be an important early reaction, possibly associated with uptake. Within the root tissues side-chain reduction, glucosylation and ribosylation reactions were prominent. Side-chain cleavage appeared to be of only limited importance.

Cytokinin metabolism in tomato plants. II. Metabolites of kinetin and benzyladenine in decapitated roots

Decapitated tomato plants were supplied via the roots with [8-14C]-kinetin or [8-14C]-benzyladenine in a nutrient solution for a period of 24 h. After this time the root material, the root sap produced during the 24 h period and the nutrient solution remaining at the end of the experiments were analysed for cytokinins. HPLC techniques and chemical treatments were used to tentatively identify radioactive metabolites formed. Uptake of kinetin and benzyladenine by the roots was found to be limited but once within the root tissues metabolism was both rapid and extensive. At least 14 metabolites of kinetin were recovered from root tissue and root sap. Many of these appeared to be degradation products. There was, however, some evidence of formation of zeatin-like derivatives. Side-chain cleavage of the original kinetin which occurs rapidly is suggested as a possible route for the eventual production of these endogenous cytokinin forms. The benzyladenine taken up by the roots was apparently both ribosylated and glucosylated. No unmetabolized benzyladenine was detected in the root tissues after 24 h. Only very low levels of radioactivity were associated with the retention time of adenine, suggesting that in the case of benzyladenine side-chain cleavage is of limited importance. The significance of these reactions in relation to the potential use of cytokinins in the regulation of plant growth is discussed.

Ferulenol and ω-hydroxyferulenol, toxic coumarins from Ferula communis var. genuina

From the root sap of Ferula communis, two isoprenylated 4-hydroxycoumarins, the known ferulenol and the new ω-hydroxyferulenol, were isolated, which both show haemorrhagic action. Their structures were established from MS, IR, 1H and 13C NMR spectral analysis.

Mineral Elements and Organic Acids in Branch and Root Xylem Sap of Healthy and Blight-affected Sweet Orange Trees

Abstract Sap extracted by nitrogen gas pressure from branches and lateral roots of healthy and citrus blight-affected ‘Hamlin’ and ‘Valencia’ orange, Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, trees on rough lemon (C. Union Burm. f.) rootstock in 2 commercial groves was analyzed for N, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, CI, Si, and organic acids. The branch and root wood (from which the sap was extracted), leaves, and feeder roots were also analyzed. Sap extracted from branches of blight-affected ‘Hamlin’ trees in the spring had higher Zn, Cu, CI, and Si concentrations than sap of healthy trees. Nitrogen was increased twofold and Fe slightly increased with blight in the root sap. Branch sap collected from ‘Valencia’ trees in the fall showed no differences. Branch sap contained more organic acids than root sap and there was no difference between blighted and healthy trees. Citric and malic were the principal acids.

Accumulation of zinc and Organic Acids in Roots of Zinc Tolerant and Non-tolerant Ecotypes of Deschampsia caespitosa

A much higher zinc level was necessary to inhibit root elongation in the zinc tolerant ecotype as compared to the non-tolerant ecotype of Deschampsia caespitosa. In the presence of a range of high levels of zinc, zinc accumulated to a much higher concentration in the roots of the tolerant ecotype, especially in the root sap. Accumulation of citrate in the root sap was highly correlated to the accumulation of zinc. Gel filtration chromatography of the root sap showed zinc to be mainly present as zinc-citrate. This was the only zinc complex found. The malate concentration of the root sap was much lower than the concentration of citrate. However the malate content of aqueous root homogenates was comparable or even greater than the content of citrate, suggesting that malate and citrate are located in different compartments within the cell. The results are consistent with a model of zinc tolerance in which zinc is complexed with citrate in the vacuole.

Effect of temperature on drought resistance and growth of cotton plants

In cotton plants (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv. B.J.A.) the temperature of the roots affected both root and shoot growth, as did the temperature of the shoot. Drought resistance increased when the temperature imposed on roots (27°C) was lower than that imposed on shoots (17°C); the result was a decrease in both transpiration and flow of root sap. Stomatal characteristics as measured by density, index and resistance, depended only on shoot temperature. Differences in drought resistance, depended only on shoot temperature. Differences in drought resistance seem to be a result of changes in transpiration flow modulated by the amount of absorbed water.

Endogenous Cytokinins in Bougainvillea `San Diego Red'

Using chromatographic, chemical, and enzymic techniques, 11 compounds capable of stimulating the division of soybean callus cells were tentatively identified in the root sap of Bougainvillea ;San Diego Red.' These cytokinin-like compounds included phosphorylated and glucosylated forms of zeatin, ribosylzeatin, and their dihydro derivatives. In addition, isopentenyl adenosine and isopentenyl adenine were apparently also present. The occurrence of glucosylated derivatives in the root sap of plants has not been substantiated previously.