Romantic Attachment Style Research Articles

I want her to want me: Sexual misperception as a function of heterosexual men's romantic attachment style

Heterosexual men consistently overperceive women's sexual interest. Past studies have related overperception to individual and situational factors such as alcohol intoxication, but nobody has yet investigated personality factors that may contribute to sexual misperception. The present research takes a first step in that direction by examining the relation between attachment style and sexual misperception. Two studies revealed that men's romantic attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted the extent to which men estimated the sexual interest of a hypothetical woman in a nightclub scenario. Mediation analyses suggest that this is due to both motivated social perception and cognitive bias. Specifically, men's attachment anxiety predicts increased desire for intimacy, which predicts their hope that a woman will be sexually interested; consequently, men imagine themselves as more flirtatious in the scenario, which biases them toward imagining the woman as more flirtatious, too. A similar process occurred for attachment avoidance, but in the opposite direction.

Development of Japanese version of the long-term mating orientation scale (LTMO-J)

The purpose of this study was to validate the 7-item long-term mating orientation scale (LTMO) as translated into Japanese. Two samples of Japanese adults (N = 2000; 50.0% male; Mage = 40.9 for the first survey; N = 300; 54.7% male; Mage = 42.4 for the second survey) completed a web-based questionnaire, including the Japanese translation of the LTMO. The results showed that the psychometric properties of the Japanese LTMO scale were comparable to those of the original English version. The scale had adequate reliability based on Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω. Convergent validity was demonstrated by the correlation between the LTMO scores and related variables: human life history strategies, short-term sociosexual orientation, attitude to infidelity, romantic attachment style, and so on. The translated scale provides a valid and reliable instrument in Japanese that measures human mating strategy.

Too close for comfort: Attachment insecurity and electronic intrusion in college students’ dating relationships

Social media has become an important context for dating relationships among young adults. This study sought to explore how the ubiquitous and public nature of social media may interact with college students’ individual characteristics to contribute to intrusiveness and invasion of privacy in dating relationships. A survey of 307 college students asked participants about their adult romantic attachment style and engagement in “electronic intrusion” (EI). EI included looking at a dating partner’s private electronic information without permission, monitoring a partner’s whereabouts using social media, and monitoring who a partner talks to or is friends with on social media. There were no gender differences in frequency of perpetrating EI. Results showed that level of attachment anxiety was positively associated with EI for women and men, and level of avoidance was negatively associated with EI for women. Results suggest that attachment style influences intrusive electronic dating behaviors, and social media may increase risk for anxiously attached college students to engage in EI for anxiety relief.

Digit Ratio (2D:4D) and Attachment Styles in Middle Childhood: Indirect Evidence for an Organizational Effect of Sex Hormones

Sex differences in attachment are absent during infancy and early childhood, emerge in middle childhood with self-reports and doll-play tasks, and persist into adulthood, when they are most reliably detected in romantic attachment styles. In our previous work, we hypothesized that sex differences in attachment develop under the influence of adrenal androgens during the transition form early to middle childhood, following activation of hormone-sensitive neural pathways organized by prenatal and early postnatal exposure to sex hormones. In this study we tested the association between the right-hand 2D:4D digit ratio (a marker of early exposure to androgens and estrogen) and sexually differentiated dimensions of attachment in middle childhood assessed with the Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CSQ). In a sample of 285 Italian children aged 8–10 years, females scored lower in avoidance and higher in preoccupation, while no significant sex differences were observed in felt security. Consistent with our predictions, higher (feminized) digit ratios were significantly associated with lower avoidance and higher preoccupation scores in both males and females. In contrast, there was no significant association between digit ratio and felt security in either sex. These results corroborate the hypothesis that sex differences in attachment reflect the activation of sexually differentiated pathways organized in early development, and for the first time implicate sex hormones in the development of individual differences in attachment styles.

Maternal romantic attachment, and antenatal and postnatal mother–infant attachment in a sample of Polish women

In this exploratory study, we evaluated the relationship between a woman's self-reported romantic attachment style (as measured with The Attachment Styles Questionnaire), her experience of pregnancy, antenatal (The Maternal–Fetal Attachment Scale) and postnatal (Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire) attachment with her baby, and depressive symptomatology (The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale). In the first stage of the study 162 pregnant females participated; of these, 64 were followed up in the second stage. The maternal romantic attachment style predicted attachment with the baby in the antenatal, but not in the postpartum period. The anxious-ambivalent romantic attachment style predicted more interaction with and attributing more characteristics to the foetus, secure attachment style was positively correlated with role taking, and avoidant—with attributing more characteristics to the foetus. In the postpartum period, the correlation between antenatal and postnatal attachment was only moderate; role taking during pregnancy correlated with anxiety about care for an infant. However, our study shows the association of the profile of anxious-ambivalent romantic attachment with postpartum depression, which heightens the risk of postnatal mother–infant bonding impairments.

The Role of Romantic Attachment in Women’s Experiences of Body Surveillance and Body Shame

Self-objectification, body surveillance, and body shame have been widely researched in the context of early attachment and interpersonal relationships; however, no research to date had been conducted on the role of romantic attachment styles. In the current study, we examined the role of romantic attachment in women’s (n = 193) experiences of body surveillance and body shame. We hypothesized a model in which anxious and avoidant attachment positively predicted body shame through the intervening variable of body surveillance and then revised the model to incorporate a direct path from anxious attachment to body shame. The revised model had good fit to our data. Our research suggests that body surveillance and body shame are outcomes of insecure romantic attachment in adulthood. While this was true for both insecure attachment styles, anxious attachment, in particular, was a stronger predictor of both body surveillance and body shame. We discuss the potential implications of these findings in the context of prior research on self-objectification and relationship contingency, self-esteem, and rejection fears.

Why are psychological sex differences often larger in gender Egalitarian cultures? An evolutionary psychology approach

Evolutionary insights from sexual selection theory, strategic pluralism theory, sexual strategies theory, life history theory, psychosocial acceleration theory, and mismatch theory have helped to explain cultural variations in the degree to which men and women psychologically differ. Biosocial theory, in contrast, has proven problematic in that national levels of sociopolitical gender equality are often positively related (not negatively related) with the size of psychological sex differences. As men and women are treated more equally across cultures, psychological sex differences are larger in terms of Big Five personality traits and the Dark Triad traits of Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and psychopathy; in terms of romantic attachment and love styles; in terms of sociopolitical attitudes and personal values; in terms of clinical depression rates and crying behavior; in terms of tested cognitive and mental abilities; even in terms of physical attributes such as height and blood pressure.

The Primary Attachment Style Questionnaire: A Brief Measure for Assessing Six Primary Attachment Styles before and after Age Twelve

Objective: This article describes development and initial validation studies of the Primary Attachment Style Questionnaire (PASQ), a brief self-report for delineating six styles of attachment to a primary caregiver. Theoretically cued to Ainsworth's original infant classifications, the questionnaire is designed to map attachment patterns during two developmental periods (before and after age 12) and is intended for use in both clinical and non-clinical populations. Method: Pilot studies of the PASQ were conducted with a total of 441 college undergraduates. Over this period, test-retest analyses and factor analyses reduced the number of questionnaire items to the current 42-item version. Participants also responded to a variety of additional measures intended to assess the PASQ's validity. Results: In the first of three validity studies, investigators found moderate correlations between 120 college undergraduates' predominant attachment styles on the PASQ Before 12 and romantic attachment styles on Brennan, Clark, and Shaver's ECR. In the second study, 167 respondents' Axis I and Axis II scores on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory supported the hypothesis that particular insecure attachment styles before age 12 would be related to specific personality disorders and to PTSD. The third validity study demonstrated the PASQ's sensitivity to shifts in attachment security between childhood and adolescence in the presence of three types of events that might generate attachment-related distress: mother's death, parents' divorce, and disruption of mother's ability to provide adequate caregiving. Conclusion: Findings support the utility of the PASQ for use in attachment research and in clinical practice.

She Loves Him, She Loves Him Not

In two studies, we examined how romantic attachment style relates to women’s sexism toward men. Specifically, we applied structural equation modeling and mediation analyses to the responses of over 500 self-reported heterosexual women. Study 1 included 229 women who answered questionnaires tapping attachment anxiety and avoidance, ambivalent sexism toward men, romanticism, and interpersonal trust. We conducted Study 2 as a replication, changing questionnaire order to gauge the robustness of results, using a new sample of 273 women. In general, women’s attachment anxiety predicted ambivalent sexism (both benevolence and hostility) toward men, whereas women’s attachment avoidance predicted univalent hostility (and lower benevolence) toward men. Romanticism mediated attachment style’s relationship to benevolence toward men, whereas lower interpersonal trust mediated attachment’s relationship to hostility toward men. The results suggest that, for women (as for men), sexist attitudes toward members of the other sex have roots in attachment style and associated worldviews. Better understanding of women’s ambivalence toward men in romantic relationships may help to inform marital therapy.

The Relationship Between Love Styles and Romantic Attachment Styles in Gay Men

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between love styles and romantic attachment styles in self-identified gay men. Participants (N = 72) completed the Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised and the Love Attitudes Scale Short Form. Results indicated that all six love styles were significantly predictive of anxious and avoidant romantic attachment. A series of multiple regressions were performed using love styles as predictors of avoidant and anxious attachment styles separately. Examination of the beta weights indicated that eros and mania love styles were unique predictors of anxious and avoidant romantic attachment for the gay men in this sample. Implications for counseling are highlighted.

Adult attachment style and cortisol responses across the day in older adults

The association between cortisol and adult attachment style, an important indicator of social relationships, has been relatively unexplored. Previous research has examined adult attachment and acute cortisol responses to stress in the laboratory, but less is known about cortisol levels in everyday life. The present study examined adult romantic attachment style and cortisol responses across the day. Salivary cortisol was collected at six time points during the course of the day in 1,807 healthy men and women from a subsample of the Whitehall II cohort. Significant associations were found between attachment on cortisol across the day and slope of cortisol decline. The lowest cortisol output was associated with fearful attachment, with preoccupied attachment having the highest levels and a flatter cortisol profile. The results tentatively support the proposition that attachment style may contribute to HPA dysregulation.

"Love hurts": romantic attachment and depressive symptoms in pregnant adolescent and young adult couples.

The current study investigates the relationship between romantic attachment style and depressive symptoms between both members of pregnant adolescent and young adult couples. Participants were 296 pregnant young females (mean age = 18.7) and their male partners (mean age = 21.3; 592 total participants) who were recruited from obstetrics and gynecology clinics in Connecticut. The dimensions of avoidant and anxious romantic attachment were assessed using the Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory. Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression Scale. Results showed that avoidant attachment and anxious attachment were significantly positively related to depressive symptoms. Multilevel modeling for partner effects revealed that anxious attachment and depressive symptoms in partners were significantly positively associated with depressive symptoms Findings underscore the importance of considering couples-based approaches to supporting the transition to parenthood and developing the necessary self and relationship skills to manage attachment needs and relationship challenges.

The Intergenerational Transfer of Mother–Daughter Risk for Gender-Based Abuse

In this 10-year longitudinal study 150 mother-daughter pairs were recruited to participate in a study examining gender-based abuse across three generations. Forms of gender-based abuse included: child sexual abuse, witnessing intimate partner violence against their mothers, and intimate partner violence or dating violence in adolescence or adulthood. Daughters were interviewed when they were on average 9, 14, and 16 years old. Regression analyses revealed that if the grandmother (G1) was abused by her husband, her daughter (G2) was more likely to be sexually molested in childhood and was also more likely to be in an abusive relationship as an adult. If the mother (G2) was sexually abused as a child her daughter (G3) was at increased risk for child sexual abuse. In turn, child sexual abuse for the daughters related to their reports of dating violence in adolescence. Daughters (G3) who were sexually abused expressed more anxiety about romantic relationships, reflecting early attachment conflicts. Both child sexual abuse and anxious romantic attachment style independently predicted adolescent sexual risk-taking as in having multiple sexual partners or dating older men. These findings demonstrate how informative it is to include multiple forms of gender-based abuse in research and practice to better illuminate complex family dynamics. In addition, the findings support previous empirical work showing the importance of attachment behavior in women who are in abusive relationships, which has unique clinical implications.

Development of an attachment-informed measure of sexual behavior in late adolescence

There is considerable interest in relations between sexual behavior and romantic attachment styles in adolescence as attachment needs are increasingly met through intimate partners rather than parents. The objectives of this research were to organize a measure of sexual behavior within an attachment theory framework, and then show that this new measure uniquely predicted sexual approach styles and invasive sexual experiences. 190 18- and 19-year-old university students in late adolescence completed sexual behavior items that were provided ambivalent (anxious) and avoidant dimensions. These were systematically related to the romantic attachment dimensions of the Experiences in Close Relationships – Revised. However, even after romantic relationship style, gender, and social desirability were controlled, avoidance in sexual relationships predicted lifetime sexual partner number and negatively predicted positive sexual strategies, and ambivalence in sexual relationships predicted invasive and coercive sexual behaviors. A measure specific to sexual relationships informs the attachment and romantic context of sex in late adolescence.

Jealousy and Relationship Closeness

This study confirmed a hypothesis from the Emotion-in-Relationships conceptual model, which predicts that greater interdependence between relationship partners—or closeness—creates the potential for jealousy. The study also sought to better define the positive side of romantic jealousy in addition to its more negative attributes. College students in premarital relationships ( N = 229) completed a questionnaire, including 27 different measures and the Multidimensional Jealousy Scale. Select data were obtained from 122 cases at 3-month follow-up. Each jealousy scale was tested for associations with demographic (age, sex, and race), person (life satisfaction, loneliness, romantic attachment styles, love styles, and romantic beliefs), and relationship (affective, closeness, and social exchange theory) constructs. Results clearly distinguished emotional/reactive jealousy as mostly “good” and cognitive/suspicious jealousy as “bad.” Behavioral jealousy was associated with few measures. Implications are discussed for the interdependence model of relationships and the transactional model of jealousy.

Relationships and cardiovascular risk: Perceived spousal ambivalence in specific relationship contexts and its links to inflammation.

Although perceiving one's social ties as sources of ambivalence has been linked to negative health outcomes, the more specific contexts by which such relationships influence health remain less studied. We thus examined if perceived spousal relationship quality in three theoretically important contexts (i.e., support, capitalization, everyday life) predicted inflammation. Ninety-four married couples completed measures of perceived spousal positivity and negativity in support, capitalization, and everyday contexts. These scores were used to derive an index of relationship ambivalence whereby interactions were rated as containing both positive and negative aspects. Serum levels of IL-6, fibrinogen, and CRP were assessed from plasma. Perceiving ambivalence toward one's spouse in a support context was linked to greater inflammation even when considering health behaviors, relationship-specific romantic attachment style, spouse negativity/positivity ratings, and overall marital satisfaction. Perceiving ambivalence toward a spouse during capitalization predicted higher fibrinogen levels only, whereas no links were found with perceived spousal ambivalence in everyday life contexts. Perceptions of ambivalence during support may be a particularly important relational context in which marital ties influence health.

Longitudinal association between adolescent attachment, adult romantic attachment, and emotion regulation strategies

Attachment security towards parents and peers in adolescence, and romantic attachment styles and emotion regulation strategies in young adulthood, were evaluated using an eight-year longitudinal design. Fifty-six young adults completed the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) at age 14, and then, at age 22, the Experience in Close Relationships (ECR) and the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS), an emotion regulation questionnaire concerning coping strategies, including task-oriented versus emotion-oriented foci. Results indicated that greater insecurity to parents and peers in adolescence predicted a more anxious romantic attachment style and greater use of emotion-oriented strategies in adulthood. Concurrently, anxious adult attachment style was related to more emotion-oriented strategies, whereas an avoidant attachment style was related to less support-seeking. Analyses also identified emotion-oriented coping strategies as a partial mediator of the link between adolescent attachment insecurity to parents and adult anxious attachment, and a complete mediator of the association between adolescent attachment insecurity to peers and adult anxious attachment. These findings support the core assumption of continuity in attachment theory, where relationships to parents influence close romantic relationships in adulthood.

Script-like attachment representations in dreams containing current romantic partners

Recent research has demonstrated parallels between romantic attachment styles and general dream content. The current study examined partner-specific attachment representations alongside dreams that contained significant others. The general prediction was that dreams would follow the “secure base script,” and a general correspondence would emerge between secure attachment cognitions in waking life and in dreams. Sixty-one undergraduate student participants in committed dating relationships of six months duration or longer completed the Secure Base Script Narrative Assessment at Time 1, and then completed a dream diary for 14 consecutive days. Blind coders scored dreams that contained significant others using the same criteria for secure base content in laboratory narratives. Results revealed a significant association between relationship-specific attachment security and the degree to which dreams about romantic partners followed the secure base script. The findings illuminate our understanding of mental representations with regards to specific attachment figures. Implications for attachment theory and clinical applications are discussed.

Romantic Attachment Among Young Adults: The Effects of Parental Divorce and Residential Instability

Using an attachment theory perspective, variation in adult romantic attachment style outcomes were examined according to childhood experiences of parental divorce and residential instability. The sample was made up of 172 young adults who were recruited using snowball sampling via online social networking. A statistical difference on adult romantic attachment style was not found between individuals who experience parental divorce and those who did not, and parental conflict and stability of residence patterns did not have a statistical impact on attachment avoidance or anxiety. However, conflict, residential stability, and time with nonresidential parent statistically improved the predictive ability of attachment anxiety among those whose parents had divorced. Specifically, time with nonresidential parent moderated adult romantic attachment anxiety.

Women's Adult Romantic Attachment Style and Communication by Cell Phone with Romantic Partners

Cell phones have become important communication media for individuals in romantic relationships. The frequency of and methods used for communication may vary by adults' style of romantic attachment. Female university students (N = 31) currently in romantic relationships responded to a questionnaire. They estimated the frequency of calls and text messages received from and made to their romantic partners and completed the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised instrument, a measure of attachment anxiety and avoidance. Also, the participants reviewed their cell phones' memories and provided accurate frequency of communication to and from the romantic partner. Attachment anxiety was associated with more estimated text messages sent to and received from the romantic partners and actual text messages sent to and received from the romantic partners. Attachment avoidance was associated (r = -.38) with fewer estimated calls made to the romantic partners and fewer actual calls made to the romantic partners (r = -.34).