Romanian Principalities Research Articles

The Importance of English Trade and Capital for Understanding Historical Processes in the Work of Philosopher Stefan Zeletin

The interwar philosopher, economist and sociologist Stefan Zeletin1, professor at the “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, has special contributions in various domains related to the social sciences. The merit of the interwar thinker consists in giving meaning and significance to some economic phenomena and events. Subsequently, the valences of events of economic importance were analysed, up to the implications they have on historical processes. More precisely, Zeletin shows us that we can understand the historical purpose of some peoples, namely of the Romanian nation, based on treaties or economic decisions in the international system. The Treaty of Adrianople (1829) is analysed by the Romanian intellectual in terms of the implications of English trade and capital on the Romanian Principalities.

Haynes , Rebecca Moldova: A History (review)

SEER, 99, 3, JULY 2021 564 retain its relevance, being both enlightening and entertaining, and written in a scholarly yet readable way with some familiar and many more unfamiliar illustrative examples. There are a number of misprints, most of which may be silently corrected. It is, however, unfortunate for Jonathan Waterlow, author of a book about life and humour under Stalin, that he should twice be referred to as Waterloo. Perhaps worse is the misspelling of the name of Brian Bennett as Bennet both in the text and the references, particularly as he is one of the few referenced authors who actually met Lukashenka when he was our Man in Miensk in the years 2003–07. These points do not detract seriously from a book which is without doubt a milestone in the important and fascinating field of political folklore. It should interest anyone interested in Belarus or, indeed, authoritarian societies in general. London Arnold McMillin Haynes, Rebecca. Moldova: A History. I. B. Tauris, London and New York, 2020. xvi + 237 pp. Maps. Notes. Bibliography. Index. £65.00; £19.99. In her book, Rebecca Haynes responds to the challenge of writing the history of one of the most recent states to emerge on Europe’s map: the Republic of Moldova. Very little has been written on this topic in English or in French (see Charles King, Alain Ruzé, Nicholas Dima, Stephen D. Roper), not always from a historical point of view, and sometimes a linguistic one (Donald Dwyer). The author has focused in the past on issues related to the history of Moldova and Romania, and has published several works on topics related to twentiethcentury political history. An explanation for the lack of monographs on the subject is the fact that the Republic of Moldova is a successor to only half of the former medieval principality of Moldavia, and it shares a common history with one part of what is nowadays Romania. Most historians have approached this region as a whole, and only historians from the Republic of Moldova have tried, for reasons that are easy to understand, to shape a history only for the region between the Prut and the Dniester rivers, seen as the evolution of a newly independent country set against the post-1991 struggle for democracy. A comprehensive study of this little-known region is therefore welcome. Its nine chapters present a valuable achievement of synthesis, with the author dealing with seven centuries of Moldovan history, from its beginning to the disputes between political parties in the contemporary Republic of Moldova. Haynes prefers to use the current REVIEWS 565 name of the republic, even when referring to the medieval and pre-modern period of the history of this principality, known in English literature under its Latinized name: Moldavia. It must also be pointed out that, within this political structure, the area between the Prut and the Dniester (called Bessarabia by the Russians after 1812) was always an area of secondary interest, less populated and less urbanized and with lower economic status, since it was more exposed to Tatar attacks from Crimea and Budjak. Haynes, though, has risen to the challenge of integrating the territory of the current Republic of Moldova (the eastern part of the former principality) into the history of the entire country — not an easy task. She initially focuses on the country as a whole, only shifting her attention to the area between the Prut and the Dniester after it began to be shaped into existence after the Russian occupation of 1812. This is a common situation in many other countries in the Balkans, where there are several histories shared by different states. I should note the author’s capacity for synthesis, as she presents us with a coherent narrative that allows the reader unfamiliar with the political landscape in Southeast Europe to better understand the complex political and economic relations that guided the evolution of the Romanian principalities. Caught between various neighbouring powers, such as Poland, Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, which were later joined by Russia and Austria, Moldavia managed to preserve its political identity, and retained a wide autonomy even in the darkest years of the eighteenth century. The strongest part...

“With Marx against Moscow”: the backstage of editing Karl Marx’s manuscripts about Romanians

"“With Marx against Moscow”: the backstage of editing Karl Marx’s manuscripts about Romanians. In mid-1960s, a book containing unknown manuscripts attributed to Karl Marx was published in Romania. The documents were discovered at the International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam by the Polish historian Stanislav Schwann. The sources of the most important notes were reprised from a book written by the French historian Élias Regnault in mid-19th century. For the Romanian communist leadership, the Russian presence in the Romanian Principalities during the first half the 19th century was the most relevant part of the texts signed by Marx. As such, the historical discourse was co-opted in the political plan aimed to emancipation from Soviet authority in Romania. The main Romanian historian involved in the plan for editing Karl Marx’ writings was Andrei Oţetea. As Director of the Institute of History of the Romanian Academy in Bucharest, he received the main mission of maintaining the correspondence with the Institute of Amsterdam. The study aims to establish the evolution of Romanian-Dutch treaties, in order to exploit the manuscripts, as well as the involvement of the historiographical circles. Although the question was treated as a strictly political one, the project experienced several phases influenced in particular by the changes of attitude from the Dutch Institute. Thus, an important objective of the study is to highlight the reactions produced by the Romanians’ intentions to bring to light some important data attributed to Karl Marx Keywords: Andrei Oţetea, Karl Marx manuscripts, Institute of Social History Amsterdam. "

Memoriale delle cose occorse a me Franco Sivori dopo della mia partenza da Genova l’anno 1581 per andare in Vallachia

This image of Bucharest as it appeared in September 1583 opens a long description of Wallachia contained in the Memoir by the Genoese Franco Sivori, secretary of Petru Cercel, prince of Wallachia, from 1581 to 1589. Conserved among the manuscripts of the Vatican Apostolic Library and written in ancient Italian, it has been recently edited by Alexandra Vrânceanu Pagliardini, recipient of a research fellowship from the Romanian Academy in Rome, Italy. The text, already edited in part by the Romanian historian Ştefan Pascu in 1944,2 is now re-proposed in an unabridged edition.As Vrânceanu Pagliardini points out in the introduction, the Memoir by Sivori is “a complex work, having points in common with both travel accounts of merchants and diplomatic reports of ambassadors.” It also shows “surprising similarities with a Bildungsroman.” Sivori selects the events to describe in order to contemplate “the relationship between ‘fortune’ and ‘prudence,’ which is pivotal in sixteenth-century Italian treatises, especially in The Prince by Machiavelli and the Ricordi by Guicciardini.”3From a strictly historical point of view, the Memoir is a first-hand source for the study of the Balkans and the Romanian lands in the years prior to the anti-Ottoman campaigns led by the Wallachian prince Michael the Brave (1593–1601).4 Noteworthy are the descriptions of Constantinople and the nearby Genoese colony at Pera, where Sivori stayed before reaching Bucharest. “Compared to those of Constantinople, the houses [of Pera] are very comfortable and [the city] has fountains with good waters [. . . ], gardens, and beautiful, well-kept vineyards. In addition to the Greek and Turkish languages, the inhabitants of Pera mainly speak an Italian tending towards the Genoese dialect, and so, in walking, talking and living, they imitate the Genoese very much,” writes the secretary.5The description of Wallachia is even richer, with details on the fertility of the soil; the production of excellent wines; the abundance of game; the presence of gold, iron, and salt mines; and the trading in hides and other commodities. In this regard, Sivori observes: “Wallachians are not involved in trading; this is conducted by Ragusans, Greeks, Jews, and a few Turks [. . . ]. Hides and wax are sent on muleback to Ragusa and [from there by sea to] Ancona, or shipped on the Danube to the ports of Varna and Constanţa on the Black Sea, and then loaded onto ships that sail first to Constantinople and then to Ragusa or Ancona.”6The excursus on Wallachia concludes with original thoughts on the language spoken in sixteenth-century Romania: “Their language, as that of Moldavia, a neighboring kingdom, is a mixture of Latin, Italian, Greek, and Slavonic. On the whole, it is a barbarian language. They write in Serbian, or rather Slavonic, characters, and the most important documents are drawn up in Serbian, just as we write them in Latin.”7By virtue of its references to economics and trading, society and settlements, language and culture, Sivori’s Memoir is essential for understanding the Balkans and, in particular, relations between the Romanian Principalities and Italy in the late sixteenth century.

The Society of Physicians and Naturalists of Iași and the Union of the Romanian Principalities

The Union of the Romanian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia has been an ideal of the nation for centuries, expressed by its intellectuals and policy makers. Its fulfillment was rendered possible in the enlightened era of the nineteenth century, following the Crimean War (1853-1856) and the Peace of Paris. The Peace Treaty of 1856, involving Russia, the Ottoman Empire, France, Great Britain and the Kingdom of Sardinia, and then the Paris convention of 1858, enabled the Union of the Principalities in 1859. In this context, the progressive Romanian intellectuals played an essential role in awakening the national consciousness of the masses called upon to vote, as well as in the elaboration of the strategy to be implemented, both internally and internationally. The Society of Physicians and Naturalists of the Principality of Moldavia (SPN), the first scientific society not only in the Romanian Principalities but also in Southeast Europe (1830), got involved in this national unification process, seen as a condition of emancipation, stability and European integration of their country. SPN was therefore not only the seat where Colonel Alexandru Ioan Cuza was appointed as the sole candidate for the Reign of Moldavia on January 3rd , 1859, but also a nucleus of struggle for the Union. It is plausible that, due to the participation of some of the leading SPN members, ideological confrontations took place within this scientific forum and tactics were envisaged meant to achieve the Union of the Principalities through the victory of the Unionist Party. Ever since SPN remained linked to the memory of Cuza's election in Moldavia, and this constituted another fundamental contribution of this academic institution to the overall establishment of modern Romania. Immediately after the Union, in 1860 the Society of Physicians and Naturalists of the Principality of Moldavia became the Society of Physicians and Naturalists of Iași and kept on integrating both national and international personalities from the entire world.

Aspects of Translating Musical Instruments in Foreign Travellers Through the Romanian Principalities, I-X Series of Volumes

Abstract Whether we are talking about those written directly in Romanian, or whether we are referring to those translated into the same language, the narrative sources are the main source of documentation in the process of reconstructing any aspect related to our past. Regarding music and all the elements related to it, the category of sources we refer to is the most important source of information, even if, in relation to other aspects, music is relatively little “present” within these writings. Therefore, trying to correctly and accurately determine the described musical instruments, as well as the related terminology, is important, but also difficult. On the occasion of a more extensive work (i.e. doctoral thesis) I noticed, especially in the category of sources referred to here, a series of mistranslated musical instruments which makes it difficult or even far from understanding and creating a more accurate picture of the musical atmosphere of past centuries. All these aspects draw our attention first of all by resorting to comparing the translations with the original version after which they were made, but also by comparing the descriptions regarding music related to Romania with those referring to Romaniansʼ neighbors or those with which we have come into consistent contact with throughout history. Therefore, in the following, we propose to analyze the main cases of mistranslations identified by us, a comparison with the original alternatives of the texts after which they were made, but also a framing of the historical context, without which the proper understanding risks would not be fully achieved.

Romanian-Greek manuscript inventory number 27 Anthology – An Account of the activity of the copyist Chiril Monahul from Bisericani Monastery (Neamt County)

Abstract This paper is a fraction of an ampler project aimed at classifying and studying the entire collection of musical manuscripts from the “Dumitru Stăniloae” Ecumenical Library of the Metropolitan Church of Moldavia and Bukovina of Iasi. This documentary collection consists of a number of 32 musical manuscripts, in Chrysantine notation mainly originating from the 19th century. Manuscript 27 was created in 1846 by Cyril the Monk from the Bisericani Monastery (Neamt county) – he was a psalter, composer and copyist of great talent. He wrote other two manuscripts, ms. inventory numbers 23 and 31/49, which are in the “Dumitru Stăniloae” Ecumenical Library of the Metropolitan Church of Moldavia and Bukovina of Iasi. His own creation (with the mention “by the writer”) in Ms. 27 contains the first psalm, Blessed is the man in the plagal of the 4th mode, the troparia God is with us in the plagal of the 4th mode, the polyeleos Good word in the 4th mode legetos, the doxastikon of the Easter, The day of Ressurection, the plagal of the 1st mode and two heirmoi of the Holy Week. These are chants that are remarkable through their fluidity and expressiveness, as they retain the specific psaltic melodic formulas and reveal a balanced analytical musical writing. The liturgical music in Manuscript 27 consists of various chants, from those performed during the Vespers to the Matin and the Liturgy. Following analysis of the manuscript’s repertoire, I discovered that the main source of Ms. 27 is the first three volumes of the Anthology by Nektarios Frimu, published in Neamț (3rd volume, 1840) and Iași (1st and 2nd volume, 1846). Cyril the Monk, the copyist of Ms. 27, selected works from these sources, and introduced along the self-authored chants mentioned earlier, chants by other lesser-known authors, such as Nechifor (The Blessings of the Ressurection, the plagal of 1st mode in Greek) and Calinic (troparia from the chant Lord is with us, the plagal of the 4th mode in Romanian and the polyeleos The Lord’s servants, the plagal of the 2nd mode, in Greek). Besides, among the chants in Romanian, the manuscript records chants in Greek (by established Greek authors), which are proof of the continuous practice of the Greek chanting in Moldavia, long with that in Romanian, in the period before the Reforms (1863-1864) introduced by Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the ruler of the Romanian Principalities.

The The Legend of Alexander of Macedon in the Late Mediaeval and Early Modern Manuscripts of the Romanian Principalities

The The Legend of Alexander of Macedon in the Late Mediaeval and Early Modern Manuscripts of the Romanian Principalities

Between the diplomacy of war or peace and the Ottoman occupation of the Romanian Principalities (1821-1822)

Between the diplomacy of war or peace and the Ottoman occupation of the Romanian Principalities (1821-1822)

Mihail Kogălniceanu’s Historical Inquiry into the Question of Roma Slavery in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Romanian Principalities

This article examines Ochire istorică asupra sclăviei (A brief historical survey of slavery), a mid-nineteenth-century pioneering study about the history of slavery, to ascertain the growing influence of anti-slavery ideas in the framing of the new Romantic historical discourse about Roma slavery in the Romanian principalities. The study, written by the leading Romanian historian, writer, journalist, and liberal statesman Mihail Kogălniceanu (1817–1891), was published in 1853 in a censored edition and has received only limited scholarly attentiondue to its incomplete form (the full version of the original article has yet to be published). The present paper intends to provide a critical reflection on the main features of Kogălniceanu’s analysis of the institution of slavery in the Romanian principalities by exploring the author’s multilayered interest in the question of Roma slavery, his command of primary sources, and the underlying historical interpretation and social doctrines thatframed his investigation.

O istorie a companiilor de navigaţie străine de la Dunărea de Jos

Cristian Constantin’s study, O istorie a companiilor de navigaţie străine de la Dunărea de Jos (A History of Foreign Shipping Companies on the Lower Danube), is not only a history of foreign shipping companies active on the Lower Danube; it is also an affirmation of the significance of the expansion of Romania’s overseas trade during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Political conditions were favorable as a result of the ending of the Ottoman trading monopoly (1829), and the recognition of Romania’s independence (1878), while the country’s ability to supply large quantities of cereals, oil, and timber in return for advanced technology created a powerful economic basis for close commercial ties with the powers of Central and Western Europe. The growth of overseas trade led to radical changes in Romania’s economic geography because a much greater value was now placed on access to the Lower Danube and the agricultural potential of the steppes was greatly increased by the rising demand for cereals.Although the mouths of the Danube were important commercial highways in medieval times, providing economic underpinnings for the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, with their rival ports of Galați and Brăila, respectively, overland trade was fostered during the centuries of Turkish suzerainty. Over the last century and a half, there has been an emphasis on two principal routes for international shipping: one using the Danube right through the delta into the Black Sea, and another involving overland movement across Dobrogea, from Cernavoda on the Danube to Constanța on the Black Sea coast. The relative importance of these routes has fluctuated, but it is the maritime option that is the subject of Cristian Constantin’s book.The Lower Danube became a bone of contention between Austria and Russia as the Ottoman Empire continued its long process of contraction. Freedom of navigation for all was agreed upon between Russia and Turkey under the Convention of Cetatea Albă in 1825, while the Russian frontier advanced southward from the Chilia branch, reached in 1812 under the Treaty of Bucharest, to the Sulina arm in 1817, and finally to the Sfântul Gheorghe channel in 1829 under the Treaty of Adrianople. This latter treaty allowed the Russians to operate a quarantine station at the Sulina mouth. It was widely believed that the quarantine system was operated unfairly to divert shipping from Galați and Brăial to Russia’s own port of Odessa.Austria had an important interest in the Lower Danube when the introduction of a steamship in 1829 opened up the possibility of through sailings from Vienna to such ports as Constanța, Smyrna, Trebizond, and Varna. But by the middle of the nineteenth century, a critical situation had arisen on the Lower Danube. Britain, France, and Austria had a growing interest in trade with the Romanian principalities, but access through the delta was compromised by natural hazards and political problems. Frustration over Russia’s control of the Danube led to the Russian frontier being pushed well back from the delta, which was internationalized under the Treaty of Paris in 1856, and a European Commission of the Danube was established.The provenance of the companies covered in the seven chapters of this meticulously researched volume provide evidence of the international economic importance attached to trade on the Lower Danube: Austria, the North German shipper Lloyd, France, Russia, Britain, Italy, Hungary, Greece, and the Ottoman Empire are all represented.

Manuscrisele slavone de la biblioteca filialei Cluj-Napoca a Academiei Române. Studiu monografic şi antologie de texte

Even if Romania takes its name from ancient Rome and its inhabitants speak a Romance language, its Slavic heritage is of considerable importance. Situated between Serbia, Bulgaria, and Russia, medieval Moldavia and Wallachia adopted Slavonic both as the language of public administration and as the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church.1 As such, it was also used by Romanians living in Transylvania.2 Until the nineteenth century, the Romanian language was written in Cyrillic characters, then superseded by a Latin alphabet.3This Slavic heritage is reflected in rich collections of Slavonic manuscripts conserved in Romanian libraries, such as the Library of the Romanian Academy in Bucharest and its branch in Cluj-Napoca, the country’s second-largest city. This book by Anca Libidov, based on her PhD thesis and recently published by Editura Etnologică, presents and analyzes the thirty-seven Slavonic manuscripts conserved in Cluj. Among them are epistle books, gospel books, psalters, prayer books, hymnals, lives of saints, collections of religious and philosophical writings, and an Italian grammar written in Russian. Overall, these texts were compiled between the fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries in countries such as Transylvania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Russia. Displaying vast erudition, Libidov accurately defines their peculiarities from various perspectives, with reference to structure, content, and language.More precisely, in the first part of the book, she describes every manuscript based on the following scheme: dating, geographical provenance, format, number of pages, language, paper, watermark, binding, decoration, ink, index of contents, margin notes, state of preservation, and places where the manuscript was conserved before reaching the Library of the Romanian Academy branch in Cluj. Bibliographical references complete each summary.The second part of the book examines about fifty different kinds of watermarks on the paper of the manuscripts with the goal of more precisely dating the texts. Watermarks also offer interesting information on the economic, political, and cultural relations between the Romanian lands and the rest of Europe. Those of Venetian origin, for example, refer to the extensive trade between the Italian city and the Balkans in medieval and early modern times. As is well known, Venice played a leading role not only in glassmaking, but also in papermaking and book production. In addition to paper, Latin, Greek, and Slavonic books printed in Venice reached Romania (as their presence in libraries of Wallachian metropolitans and princes demonstrate),4 not to mention other luxury articles like Venetian silverware, which were purchased by Wallachian noblemen.5The third part of the book investigates the language of the manuscripts, ranging from stylistic problems to linguistic aspects. In particular, the author dwells upon the peculiarities of five gospel books conserved in the collection. This highly technical section is especially useful for scholars and readers with a good command of Church Slavonic.The book concludes with an anthology of facsimile texts, an exhaustive bibliography in various languages, and a rich iconography.Beyond its contents, the monograph by Libidov confirms and strengthens the image of Romania as a bridge “between East and West.”6 The provenance of some manuscripts from Russia, as well as watermarks from Polish, German, and Italian paper mills, clearly reflect the international relations of Romanian principalities, with their identities balanced among the Latin, the Byzantine, and the Slavic worlds.

The Arabic Book of the Divine Liturgies Printed in 1745 in Iași by Patriarch Sylvester of Antioch

Abstract The following article focuses on a printed text of the Arabic Book of the Divine Liturgies, produced in 1745 in Iași (Jassy), capital of Moldavia, by Sylvester, the Patriarch of the Greek-Orthodox Church of Antioch (1724-1766), which is comprised, together with a section of a Syriac and Arabic manuscript commentary on some Gospel passages, in MS 15 of the library of Dayr Sayyidat al-Balamand (near Tripoli, Lebanon). It is a rare copy of this early Arabic printed book, whose existence was recently established. The study encloses an outline – based on Romanian, Greek and Arabic sources – of Patriarch Sylvester’s printing activity in Iași and Bucharest in 1745-1747, a description of the Book of the Divine Liturgies (Iași, 1745) preserved in the Balamand codex, and comments on the value of this finding for future research on the printing work carried out in the Romanian Principalities, in 1701-1747, for the Arabic-speaking Christians of Ottoman Syria.

Cyrillic writing system: from Slavic to Romanian

The article is devoted to Cyrillic handwritten books of the XIII–XIX centuries, created in the Romanian principalities, and stored today in the manuscript collections of the Russian State Library. The uniqueness of the writing system, functioning in the principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania) since their political formation, is that it was a Cyrillic script based on the old Slavic language with a predominant Roman-speaking population. In course of the writing system’ development in the principalities, there was a transition from the Slavic font to the Latin one; the intermediate result of this transition was the creation of monuments written in Romanian language with Cyrillic script. The main stages of this process are considered by reference to the specific examples of unique handwritten books and their fragments that have become objects for collecting by scientists, antiquaries, and Old Believers, whose book collections have formed the basis of the handwritten collections of the Russian State Library. They are the oldest Cyrillic manuscripts and their fragments dated to the XII–XIV centuries, found on the territory of Romania, Slavic manuscripts, produced mainly in monasteries of principalities in the XV–XVII centuries, translations of individual words into the Romanian language in the rewritten Slavic texts in the XVI century; the glosses and comments in Romanian on the margins of Slavic manuscripts in the XVI–XVIII centuries; numerous notes in the Romanian language in the manuscripts of the XVI–XVIII centuries, made by owners and readers; translations of literary monuments, including bilingual (Slavic–Romanian) and trilingual (Slavic–Latin–Romanian) versions in the XVI–XVIII centuries; Romanian–Slavic and Slavic–Romanian dictionaries in the XVII–XVIII centuries; letters and their copies in the Romanian language (sureties) in the XVI–XIX centuries. The article is an intermediate outcome of studying and describing Cyrillic Romanian handwritten books in the collections of the Russian State Library, which will result in the publication of a hard–copy catalog.

A Failed Constitutional Experiment: The Monarchical Constitutionalism and the Organic Regulations of 1831-1832

In this paper I intend to give a brief account of the context, causes, structure, aims and dynamic of what I decided to label the Romanian ‘monarchical constitutionalism without octroy’, as a subspecies of the monarchical constitutionalism. After a short account of the geopolitical, political, legal and social contexts specific to the Romanian Principalities at 1830, I shall address the provisions of the ORs against the accepted standards of the monarchical constitutionalism and follow their subsequent developments in the Romanian constitutional and political praxis. My core idea is that the Russians have borrowed from France and imposed the specific constitutional mechanisms of limited monarchy for geostrategic purposes, in a Romanian society organically incapable and, above all, having a political class manifesting very short interest in effectively applying them. At the end, the monarchical constitutionalism was a failed Russian experiment. At 1849, after the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, the Convention of Balta-Liman, concluded between the Ottoman and Russian Empires, has amended the ORs replacing the limited monarchy with a full-fledged monarchical absolutism.

The Modernization of the Romanian Space, in a European Context, Reflected in the Political Language of the Middle of the Nineteenth Century

The modernization of the Romanian space from the beginning of the 19th century, in the European context, having as source of inspiration the French model, in particular, took place at all levels of development, being reflected both in the forms of social organization and in the language used. The modern Romanian political lexicon has its origins in the middle of the 19th century. The „48 period reprezented a hot spot in the development of the political vocabulary used in the Romanian space. The current that bears the name of ‟48 movement found its promoter in the Romanian bourgeoisie, a social category in formation, and embodied in the country, in the three Romanian principalities: Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, the form of ideology both through the programs of the secret society Brotherhood and through the reform documents of the revolution from 1848, respectively 1849, such as: in the Proclamation from Islaz in Wallachia, in the Wishes of the national party of Moldavia from Moldavia, but also in the program of the Popular Assembly from Blaj in Transylvania.

ASPECTE DIN ISTORIA MĂNĂSTIRILOR ROMÂNEȘTI. PREZENȚA UNOR ÎNCHISORI ÎN PERIOADA MODERNĂ

Monastic detention has existed since the 6tth century, but the transformation of monasteries into prisons and other institution of confinement such as houses of correction, psychiatric hospitals, sanatoriums, asylums etc., arose at a time when the ideas of the Enlightenment were embodied in the society. This was a point of inflection of the pre-modern and modern world. The paradigm shift gradually began, in the 17th century in Western Europe, until the 19th century in the Romanian Principalities. With the secularization of monastic property in 1863, and delayed construction of new prisons, a number of monasteries changed their full function, becoming prisons. The consequences were disastrous: monastic ensembles, most of them of a priceless spiritual, architectural and historical value were in many cases irreversible destroyed and their mission altered.

EPOCA LUI ALEXANDRU IOAN CUZA: DISCUȚII, PROPUNERI, PROIECTE, NEREUȘITE, ÎMPLINIRI ÎN DOMENIUL FINANCIAR-BANCAR NAȚIONAL

. First and foremost, we will depict the realities of “money trading” (money changing, pawnbroking, and quasi-modern lending) in the Romanian Principalities from the 18th century to mid-19th century, having as starting point a number of more ancient or recent bibliographical resources. The need for low interest rate loans to support lucrative business was increasingly present in the period between 1830 and1859. The financial market of the Romanian Principalities was becoming the focus of more and more Western European banks that were seeking to pursue business through their Ottoman branches. With the support of his close associates, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the Ruler of the Romanian Principalities, also had in mind the modernisation of the Romanian banking system, as part of the reforms aimed at the development of the Romanian society as a whole. Discussions revolved around the establishment of a discount and circulation bank that would also have the right to issue currency and of a mortgage bank entitled to give out loans to the largest landowners in the country. Even though the 1864 establishment of the Savings and Consignments House had been successful in collecting private savings to be later used by the Government as budget resources for major national investment projects, the 1865 attempt at establishing Banque de Roumanie resulted in failure, due to opposition by the Romanian ruler’s political adversaries. The establishment of French and English banks in Romania was stopped and Romania failed to become a preferred market for Western European countries. Nevertheless, one should keep in mind that Alexandru Ioan Cuza, the Ruler of the Romanian Principalities, was a pioneer in this field as well, since his ideas were implemented and expanded upon after 1866.

The Library of the Metropolitan Palace from Iași at the Revoking of Metropolitan Sofronie Miclescu of Moldavia

Metropolitan Sofronie Miclescu was dismissed on the 7th of November 1860 by Alexandru Ioan Cuza because he opposed the secularization of the Church’s wealth. Immediately after this removal, the government of the United Romanian Principalities began preparing the inventory of all the assets of the highest religious institution of Moldavia. Thus, not only the vestments, furniture and tools of the Metropolitan of Moldavia and Suceava were inventoried but also the cultural heritage of this institution, consisted in liturgical accessories and vestments, old books and documents as well as portraits of the country’s hierarchs and lords. The listing proves that the Metropolitan of Moldavia had a large library, which consisted of several hundred volumes, written in Romanian, Greek, Russian, German, Latin and French, held in several rooms of the Metropolitan Palace, together with the old archive of the institution. Many items were lost during the secularization procedure as well as during the two World Wars, so the inventory kept at the National Archives of Iași is the only evidence of the cultural heritage that existed in 1860.

DIPLOMATIC AND MILITARY AGENTS OF THE POLISH EMIGRATION IN THE ROMANIAN PRINCIPALITIES (1833–1849)

Before the 1848–1849 revolution, the Romanian Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, under Turkish suzerainty and Russian protectorate, hosted a significant number of Poles belonging to both factions of the Polish Great Emigration, Adam Czartoryski’s circle and the democrats. The names and activity of the Poles emigrated in the Romanian Lands during the Peoples’ Spring are less known than those of the Polish Great Emigration in France and England. The study brings to light the diplomatic involvement (1833–1849) of leading characters among the Polish monarchists sent by Czartoryski and Michał Czajkowski in the Romanian national movement promoted by Ion Câmpineanu (1838), as well as their bounds and military support offered to Nicolae Bălcescu and other revolutionaries from Wallachia (1848). Special attention is paid to the activity unfolded by Polish democrats in Moldavia, in order to prepare and trigger an uprising in neighbouring Galicia (1846, 1848). Led by Faustyn Filanowicz, Teofil Wiśniowski, Ioan Loga, the democrats’ main accomplishment was the establishment of the Polish South Legion (1842), with operational basis in Grozeşti (Oituz) and military deployment in southern Moldavia and north-eastern Wallachia (1848). The study case of the Polish emigration in the Romanian Principalities between 1833–1849 reveals useful conclusions regarding the organization of the universal revolution, a phenomenon of world interest for nineteenth century history.