Roman Stoicism Research Articles

Ekphrasis by Aleksandr Kushner and the Reception of Antiquity in the Russian Poetry of the 21st Century

The article examines some of the features of A. Kushner’s reception of antiquity. The antique layer is an important component of the poetry of the St. Petersburg poet, starting with his very first poems of the 1960s. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the poem “Перед лучшей в мире конной статуей…” (“In front of the world’s best equestrian statue”, 2008) in connection with the problem of literary ekphrasis. The theoretical part of the article clarifies the meaning of “ekphrasis” and gives a brief overview of the most significant concepts that exist in modern science. The term appeared in antiquity, in the XIX century it was used in classical philology, and from the twentieth century it was applied to the analysis of the literature of modern times. The actualization of the term has significantly expanded the scope of the concept and its application. Modern authors use the possibilities of ekphrasis in different ways. In its most common form the emphasis is shifted from describing the work of art itself to describing a subjective impression (in poetry, works of art are usually mentioned more often than described in detail). The analytical part confirms the relevance of the ekphrastic principle in relation to different levels of the poem. The cultural-historical paradigm of the poetic image of an equestrian statue/statues that are present in Kushner’s poem in explicit or implicit form is reconstructed. The specificity and functions of antique intertexts are revealed. The article exposes not only obvious allusions correlated with the monument to Marcus Aurelius, but also implicit reminiscences referring to the philosophy of the Roman Stoics.

The metaphor of existence as a river in Marcus Aurelius’s meditations

The aim of this paper is to study Marcus Aurelius’s considerations concerning man’s attitude to the fact of the transience of existence and realization of his or her life intentions and aspirations in the context of Stoics’ ethical paradigm.Research methodology. The author uses historical, socio-cultural and system approaches to analyze the philosophical and ethical views of Marcus Aurelius, who is considered to be one of the famous representatives of Roman Stoicism. Analytical, comparative and terminological methods of cognition are also used in this study.Results. Marcus Aurelius’s reflections on the world, nature, man and his spirit contain the issues of concern that have thousands of years of philosophical discourse. Special attention is paid to the conjunction of dynamic nature and stability of existence. Central to the composition of Marcus Aurelius’s philosophy is the metaphor of existence as a river, a flux of forces of nature, namely water, fire and air. Marcus Aurelius, as other Stoics, was highly influenced by the Pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus, who believed that the only thing permanent was change. Drawing on Heraclitus’ legendary aphorism ‘you cannot step into the same river twice,’ Marcus considers that since man cannot change the natural state of things, he must obey the existing order, put up with wisdom of nature, taking it for the gift of life, though it is not eternal. But the reconciliation of man with the laws of nature must not be an emotionally-spontaneous act based on fear and horror, but rather a clear awareness that there is a natural need. If a person is aware of this need, he or she acquires the status of a free being and is able to reasonably control his or her abilities, to make a certain choice in the course of life situations. The reason, according to Marcus Aurelius, is the rescuer from the uncertainty in understanding of man’s place in nature, in search of the meaning of life, in overcoming despair, fear and powerlessness against inevitable events, in particular, before the future of his own death and the death of those around him. In the context of the variability of existence, transience of time one should live life to the full, realize one’s intentions and aspirations without violating ethical norms. In dealing with issues beyond the control of human will, man should rely upon the will of the higher forces.Novelty. It is proved that Marcus Aurelius reasonably and convincingly substantiates the idea that overcoming the fear of the perception of the facts of constant variability of existence is possible only through the logic of the dialectical reason.The practical significance. Information contained in this paper is of theoretical importance for further studies of the philosophy of Stoics, their ethical paradigm. It can be used in the practice of teaching philosophical disciplines, history of the world philosophical thought and while developing textbooks for students.

Between medicine and rhetoric: therapeutic arguments in Roman Stoicism

In this paper, I intend to focus on some rhetorical strategies of argumentation which play
 crucial role in the therapeutic discourse of Roman Stoicism, namely in Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, Seneca, and Marcus Aurelius. Reference is made to Chaim Perelman’s view of ancient
 rhetoric as an art of inventing arguments. Moreover, it is pointed out that in rhetorical education (cf. Cicero, Ad Herennium, Quintilian, etc.) as well as in therapeutic discourse the concept
 of “exercise” and constant practice play a crucial role.

Reflections of Epicurus, Seneca and La Mettrie on Happy Life

The aim of this paper is to study the views of Epicurus, Seneca and La Mettrie on the issue of happiness in their comparison and comparative analysis. Although these concepts differ from each other they are united by one fundamental idea, which consists in the fact that happiness is the human experience of the perfection of being.Research methodology. The author uses such methodological approaches as historical, sociocultural and systemic ones for studying the views of Epicurus, Seneca and La Mettrie on the content and essence of one of the basic concepts of ethics, namely the category of happiness, as well as reflections of these philosophers on the prerequisites of happiness as a specific state of life. The author also uses analytical, comparative, and terminological methods of research. A descriptive method is used as an additional one to present the content of the concepts of the philosophers.Results. Epicurus and his researchers concentrated on happiness as a state of life and as one of the main concepts of ethical philosophy. According to Epicurus, happiness is the perfection of life, it consists in mental health, which is achieved under the condition of engaging in philosophy as a teaching on a wise and balanced way of life. Happiness is impossible without material pleasures, but they must be subjected to the requirements of reason and social norms. Almost three and a half centuries after the death of Epicurus, the representative of ancient Roman Stoicism, Seneca, studied the issue of happiness. In understanding the content of happiness, he focused more on the importance of reason than on sensual pleasures. However, he did not decrease the significance of such forms of sensual reflection as will and conscience. He agreed with Epicurus that mind should control the pleasures. In his opinion, only a wise, courageous person, keeping the balance between the pleasures of body and spirit can be truly happy. Julien Offray de La Mettrie, one of the representatives of the French Enlightenment, was a follower of the teaching of Epicurus. He preferred the “model” of happiness, which was based on sensual ideas. According to La Mettrie, happiness is the highest level of sensuality, a complex of mostly sensual pleasures. He criticized Seneca for being too rational in understanding human happiness. J. O. de La Mettrie noted that he, as a follower of Epicurus’s philosophy, respected the ethical views of Seneca, especially his teachings concerning the need of enduring misfortune, illness, depression, fear of death. The dialogue between epicureanism and stoicism continues at present, it remains relevant at the new stages of philosophical and ethical discourses.Novelty. Although the concepts of happiness of Epicurus, Seneca, and J. O. de La Mettrie differ from each other they are united by one fundamental idea, which consists in the fact that happiness is the human experience of the perfection of being. It is required to observe the following principles: to live in harmony and intellectual reflections with their challenges, to be in sympathy with oneself and society.The practical significance. The materials of this paper are of theoretical importance for further research of the philosophical heritage in terms of ethical issues, including human happiness. They can be used in the process of studying the humanities at institutions of higher education and developing new textbooks for students.

Existential dimension of contemporary ukrainian cultural studies: review of recent works by M. V. Diachenko

The article is devoted to the review of the philosophical essays of Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of Kharkov State Academy of Culture Mykola Vasilovich Diachenko, who published recently last two books “Roman Stoics: Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius. Experience of reading” and “Just to live (philosophical essays and outlines)”. The authors of the paper explore the main philosophical themes and ethical discourses of Diachenko’s miniatures. On the basis of the original interpretation of the philosophy of stoicism, his own life experience, autobiographical facts, analysis of a wide philosophical and literary material in his works M. V. Diachenko examines the complex existential problems of contemporary man – loneliness, suffering, anxiety, love, death. Much attention is paid to the relationship of man with nature, the role of animals in human life and in his spiritual development. In the article, the authors emphasize that one of the main issues that arises in the works of V. Diachenko is the question of tolerant and careful attitude of a person to animals and nature. In the context of the philosophical and literary tradition of the 19th–20th centuries V. Diachenko emphasizes the need for a person to be aware of his responsibility to the living nature. His miniatures are imbued with existential perception of life, reflections on the values of life and the value of life itself, as well as the art to experience tragic events and processes of one's life. In the context of the philosophy of stoicism, the philosophy of the East, European philosophy of the 19–20th centuries, the author teaches the reader an optimistic view of the complex, ageless problems of a modern man – love, moral choice, guilt, loneliness. In the philosophical miniatures of M. V. Diachenko, the philosophy of suffering is closely intertwined with the philosophy of charity and rebirth, and this makes it a new turn in ethical philosophy. The article analyzes the ideas and principles of formation of man’s spiritual existence, which according to M. V. Diachenko, contribute to understanding how to live for a person who constantly overcomes life crises. The paper demonstrates that the ideas of M. V. Diachenko occupy a prominent place in the Kharkov university philosophy and correspond to the moods of the modern readers. The authors emphasize that Diachenko’ essays propose the new directions in the Ukrainian philosophy of the recent years.

Annaeus Cornutus et la tradition allégorique stoïcienne : signification, sources et impact

The Roman Stoic Cornutus, who lived in the age of Nero, is the heir of an ancient and rich Stoic allegorical tradition applied to all aspects of traditional religion: literary myths, cultic epithets and attributes, and even iconographical representations of deities. Allegoresis (allegorical exegesis) was applied in antiquity to culturally and religiously authoritative texts. It was mainly practiced by “pagan” philosophers like Stoics and Middle and Neoplatonists and by philosophically minded Hellenistic Jewish and Christian exegetes, who read Scripture allegorically.Cornutus offers an excellent example of mythological allegoresis in his handbook of Greek theology. For each divinity, from Ouranos to Hades, Cornutus provides an allegorico-etymological interpretation of its names and epithets, its attributes, aspects of its myths and rituals, etc. Physical allegory (Zeus represents the ether, Hera the air, etc.) is prevalent, although there are also examples of ethical and historical exegeses. Special attention is demanded by Cornutus’ programmatic assertion—analysed below—that “The ancients were not people of no account, but they were also able to understand the nature of the cosmos and had the ability to philosophise on it by means of symbols and enigmata” (35). The ancient were nothing less than philosophers, since they were endowed with the understanding of the cosmos, of what exists. What they expressed allegorically are philosophical truths. Philosophical allegoresis interprets their expressions and finds philosophical tenets therein. Cornutus was strongly influenced by Chrysippus, Apollodorus of Athens, and Crates of Mallus, while Seneca, who was a Stoic but no allegorist, probably polemicised with Cornutus.Stoic allegoresis, as practiced by the Stoics Cornutus and Chaeremon roughly at the same time, later influenced not only the so-called Middle Platonists, but also the Christian Platonist Origen. Origen seems to have applied allegoresis not only to the Bible, like Philo and Clement before him, but also to Plato’s dialogues and myths. All these allegorisers aimed at finding deeper meanings and philosophical truths in traditional accounts, thereby rescuing them from accusations of superficiality or impiety. The goal was to find in ancient poets and other expressions of traditional religion, as well as in Scripture, meanings “worthy of the divine.” Remarkable structural similarities between the Stoic allegorical tradition inherited by Cornutus and Origen’s allegoresis will be pointed out.

Marcus Aurelius: Meditations on the Reasonable Soul

The aim of this paper is to examine the views of Mark Aurelius, one of the representatives of ancient Roman stoicism, who emphasized the place and role of the human soul in the life of a person, the ratio of reason and feeling as its main components and considered the rational soul as the basis of universal human ethics. Research methodology . In this study the author uses the following methodological approaches: historical, sociocultural, and comprehensive ones. Marcus Aurelius’s views on the place and role of the soul in human life, his attitude to nature and society as well as the development and realization of ethical relations in society are identified drawing on these approaches. The author also uses analytical, comparative and terminological methods of research. A descriptive method for presentation of the content of some conceptual ideas of the philosopher is also used as an additional one. Results . In the context of the philosophical and ethical ideas of Stoicism, Marcus Aurelius substantiates the idea of the rational soul, examines the relationship of its components, like mind and feelings, and identifies the role of the rational soul in the life of a person, his attitude to nature and society. Peace of mind, peace in the soul, according to the Stoic philosophy, is the goal of a rational person. To characterize this psychological state, the ancient Greeks used the concept of “ataraxia”, which means tranquility, fearlessness, peace of mind. A person in the state of ataraxia achieves inner freedom, because his mind controls sensual passions, regardless of external influences. According to Marcus Aurelius, people are created for each other and cannot exist outside of society, therefore they must sincerely and heartily love their neighbors, and their activities should be directed towards the creation of good. The philosopher draws love for neighbors, as a sensual manifestation of the soul, from intellect and logic of the mind. Novelty . The author concludes that according to Marcus Aurelius only a person with a rational soul, whose intellect and sensual intentions are in harmony, can be the carrier of the basic principles and norms of universal ethics. The practical significance . The material of the paper is of theoretical importance for further research of the philosophical heritage of the ancient Roman Stoics. It can also be used in the process of studying humanities in higher education and preparing textbooks for students. Keywords: human being, nature, society, soul, mind, feelings, ethics, stoicism, saintly life.

The Teachings of Silvanus (NHC VII,4) and the Education of the Christian Mind

Abstract This paper examines the Teachings of Silvanus (NHC VII,4) as a specific exhortation to the attainment of wisdom by the Christian disciple. It discusses the significance of the ethical proposal to the mind, virtue, and freedom. Next, it highlights the principle values of the inner life as advocated by the document. Finally, the paper shows the extension of ethics in the sphere of spirituality and mysticism. This examination pays special attention to the Alexandrian theological legacy, which includes some notions borrowed from Jewish wisdom literature, Philo, Christian Scriptures, and two philosophical traditions: Roman Stoicism and Middle Platonism. The paper shows how the text’s rhetoric and pedagogy, although combining various philosophical and Scriptural sources, creatively constructed a unique Christian model of self-transformation suggested by the Teachings of Silvanus.

“I Must Be Emerald and Keep My Color”: Ancient Roman Stoicism in the Middle School Classroom

In this essay, Leah Guenther, a middle school teacher on Chicago's South Side, discusses her practice of the ancient philosophy of Stoicism in her classroom, arguing that this misunderstood philosophy with roots in Ancient Greece and Rome has application in today's complicated educational terrain. She explains how she used Stoicism first to improve her own sense of tranquility and then how she used it to add a behavioral awareness component to a rigorous, standards-based English language arts curriculum.

Epictetus’s Thoughts About True Freedom

The aim as this paper is to study the ideas of Epictetus, one of the representatives of ancient Roman stoicism, regarding the status of human freedom. According to his teachings, implementation of the principle of «living reasonably and honestly» is the most important prerequisite for freedom. Awareness of his/her freedom is the guarantee of a person’s decent life.Research methodology. The paper is based on sociocultural and systemic approaches, with the help of which the author studies Epictetus’s ethical rationalism, his views on the essence of individuals as rational and moral-ethical human beings. The author uses analytical, comparative and terminological methods of research. A descriptive method for presentation of the content of some conceptual ideas of the philosopher is also used as an additional one.Results. According to Epictetus, the awareness by individuals to be free human beings is the most important prerequisite for implementation of the principle of «living reasonably and honestly». He focuses on the concept of freedom as a conscious necessity that is characteristic of all Stoics. Having realized the need for a particular event, a person should act within the framework of this necessity. If a person goes beyond its scope, the necessity of certain events will force his/ her to obey it. Thus, in the context of the rationalist paradigm of the philosophy of the Stoics, it is possible to attain the state of freedom. Complementary to the rationalist aspect of freedom, Epictetus also considers an ethical aspect as a necessary one. Only the person who lives according to ethical principles achieves true freedom. Two principles: to live reasonably and honestly, are like two sides of one medal. According to Epictetus, reasonableness shows itself in decent behavior, which is caused by reasonableness. The interdependence of these two principles is reflected in the following dialectical concepts: «reasonable decency» or «decent reasonableness.» A person, who combines these two principles in his life, lives a good life. Human decency is one of the highest values in the axiological paradigm of Epictetus’s philosophy.Novelty. The author substantiates the idea concerning Epictetus’s interpreting true freedom. On the first hand, freedom consists in comprehension of life and on the second hand, it is based on the honest attitude of a person towards his neighbor and society as a whole.The practical significance. The material of this paper should be used in further research of the philosophical ideas of stoicism, as well as in educational courses in the humanities, first of all in the study of philosophy, ethics, and culturology.

¿Era Fedro un pensador estoico?

The aim of this paper is to show that Phaedrus was heavily influenced by the current stoicism, to the extent that he could be considered part of this school of thinking.The originality of this Latin poet, when compared to the preceding tradition in fable writing, can partly be explained by referring to the importance and relevance of stoical ideas in his time. The choice of a didactic, moralizing gender is in itself in line with the stoical perspective on life. In what follows we highlight the ideas that Phaedrus shares with the main Roman Stoics, such as Seneca, Musonious Rufus, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius regarding the ideal wiseman, providence, fate, utilitarianism, rejection of wealth, the defense of the family and social justice… We show some, total or partial, points of departure with the stoics that followed and his proximity to Seneca’s ideas, which show that stoic ideology, which is fully developed in Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, was being consolidated around Phaedrus’s times.

Namiętności, uczucia czy emocje? Trzy tradycje myślenia o afektach i trzy doktryny afektów w polityce

The author proposes tools for the analysis of affects in politics. First she distinguishes three historical ways of thinking about affective phenomena: the tradition of passion, deriving from ancient Greece; the tradition of feelings, begun by the Greek and Roman stoics; and finally the tradition of emotions, which was fully shaped in the nineteenth century and which most closely corresponds to the contemporary understanding of affective phenomena. The author concentrates on the meeting of two fields—the history of emotions and the philosophy of politics. Each of the three traditions of thinking has its own specific doctrine for dealing with affects, that is, it indicates ways of managing the unusually difficult challenges presented by our emotions. The author describes and critiques these approaches. She believes that although they are often burdened with presentism and anachronism, taking them into account in analyses of the social world—especially in the sphere of contemporary politics—could help understand the nuances of political thought and actions.

Понятие индивидуальности как социокультурная парадигма (эволюция взглядов)

<p>В статье рассматриваются два процесса, идущие параллельно, — тенденция развития индивидуальности и философское осмысления этой тенденции в разные эпохи. Предполагается, что динамика представлений о сущности и изменении индивидуальности имеет парадигмальную основу, т. е. транслируется от эпохи к эпохе и зависит от угла зрения наблюдателя.</p><p>Понятие индивидуальности закладывается в осевое время в античной культуре, понимающей человека как меру всех вещей. Динамика развития индивидуальности — от еврейских пророков и греческих философов до великих христианских мыслителей и деятелей XVI–XVIII вв. — раскрывается в западной культуре. Аристотелевская индивидуальность характеризуется через понимающее познание как внутреннее устремление души к постижению истины. У римских стоиков появляется предчувствие воли как особой самостоятельной способности души. Христианская индивидуальность, первоначально осознающая свою целостность через веру в Абсолют, в конце Средневековья приходит к ощущению дуальности тела и духа, из которой рождается активный субъект Нового времени. Он предстает как индивидуальность, нацеленная на завоевание сущего, — природы и человека. Первоначально, у Канта, познание мира и самопознание имеют одинаковую природу, но позже, у Хайдеггера, научно-техническое понимание мира противопоставляется самораскрытию человека.</p><p>Констатируется, что каждый новый виток понимания индивидуальности открывал новый парадигмальный ракурс развития культуры, способствуя оформлению ее новых отраслей: в Античности — философии, в Средневековье — религии, в Новое время — науки.</p><p>cience. </p>

L’espoir dans les Lettres à Lucilius de Sénèque

Hope is a notion of significant interest in Seneca’s Letters to Lucilius, as opposed to the relative scarceness of its occurrences in the fragments of the Hellenistic Stoic philosophers. It is here studied from three complementary viewpoints. First, as a passion of the unwise, it is essentially uncertain and unduly considers indifferent objects as goods in their own right. It is thus condemned as any other passion, though not always so unequivocally. Second, a positive formof hope is integrated into the mental framework of the wise person, within the general context of the «positive affections » . In particular, one may hope for the immortality of the soul, in which case hope aims at something good yet not absolutely certain. Finally, the main field of «good hope » is the moral progression from vice to virtue under the leadership of a master of philosophy. In this case, hope aims at the one and only genuine good, moral goodness, yet remains uncertain, since the final victory over vice is never ascertained until it is achieved, and the Letters display all the many shades of confidence and doubt, both on the side of the pupil and of the master. As a conclusion, some considerations are offered on the possible connections between the reflection on hope and certain trends of thought in contemporary Rome and Roman stoicism.

ANALIZA ZASTUPLJENOSTI FILOZOFSKIH PREDMETA I TEMA U „IZVEŠTAJIMA” NOVOSADSKE GIMNAZIJE PERIOD OD 1918-1941. GODINE

Analizu zastupljenosti filozofskih predmeta i tema u „Izveštajima” Novosadske gimnazije autor je započeo od „Izveštaja” za školsku 1918/19. godinu, dok je poslednje ispitivano bilo „Uputstvo učenicima Muške realne gimnazije Kralja Aleksandra I u Novom Sadu za školsku godinu 1940-41”. Autor je utvrdio da se ovo 23 godine dugo razdoblje može segmentirati na dva međusobno vremenski nepovezana perioda. Prvi period sastoji se od dve celine (prva, od školske 1918/19. do 1924/25. godine i druga, od školske 1930/31. do 1932/33. godine). U ovim školskim godinama Filozofija i/ili Filozofska propedeutika (Logika i Psihologija) bila je najviše zastupljena u nastavi u Gimnaziji (predavana je u dva završna razreda (VII i VIII), sa nedeljnim fondom od 4 časa). Drugi period takođe je temporalno fragmentiran (od školske 1925/26. do 1929/30. godine i od školske 1933/34. do 1940/41. godine). Položaj Filozofije i/ili Filozofske propedeutike (Logika i Psihologija, odnosno Osnovi psihologije) bio je u ovom periodu nezavidniji nego u prethodnom, sa fondom od samo 2 časa nedeljno u VIII razredu Gimnazije. Filozofske teme i literatura bili su zastupljeni u Gimnaziji i kroz kurikulume klasičnih jezika. Iz Latinskog jezika proučavana su i prevođena dela velikog oratora i rimskog eklektičara Cicerona (<em>De</em><em> imp. Gn. Pomp.</em>, <em>In Catilinam Oratio</em>, <em>Pro Archia poeta oratio</em>, <em>De senectute</em>, <em>Laelius </em><em>de amicitia</em>, <em>De amic.</em>), radovi slavnog poznog rimskog stoičara Seneke (<em>De</em><em> divitibus</em>), te prevođene neimenovane Sokratove izreke. Kada je reč o Grčkom jeziku, čitali su se i tumačili radovi Homera (<em>Ilijada</em>, <em>Odiseja</em>), Herodota (<em>Istorija</em>), Ksenofonta (<em>Uspomene</em><em> o Sokratu</em>, <em>Kiropedija</em>), Sofokla (<em>Antigona</em>) i delovi Platonove <em>Odbrane Sokratove</em>. Tokom više od dve decenije istraživanog rada Novosadske gimnazije desile su se mnoge značajne stvari, ali organizacija i izvedba nastave iz jedinog filozofskog predmeta nije automatski i dosledno pratila sve ove mene. Štaviše, nastava iz Filozofije i/ili Filozofske propedeutike u Novosadskoj gimnaziji imala je osobeni ritam evolucije, a njeno oblikovanje, mimo svih kvalitativnih i kvantitativnih promena, nije se podudaralo odnosno retko je koincidiralo sa nagoveštenim i primenjenim rešenjima i odlukama.

Римский стоицизм как соединение этической теории и моральной практики

Римский стоицизм как соединение этической теории и моральной практики

Shaftesbury, Stoicism, and Philosophy as a Way of Life

This paper examines Shaftesbury’s reflections on the nature of philosophy in his Askemata notebooks, which draw heavily on the Roman Stoics Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. In what follows, I introduce the notebooks, outline Shaftesbury’s account of philosophy therein, compare it with his discussions of the nature of philosophy in his published works, and conclude by suggesting that Pierre Hadot’s conception of ‘philosophy as a way of life’ offers a helpful framework for thinking about Shaftesbury’s account of philosophy.

Marco Aurelio: entre el dominio del mundo y el dominio de sí mismo

Es conocido que Heráclito constituye la principal influencia del estoicismo, a pesar de lo cual su concepción de la realidad como guerra o lucha de contrarios no fue uno de los aspectos a los que se otorgara mayor relevancia en esta escuela helenística; no obstante, Marco Aurelio, el que probablemente fuese el último gran filósofo estoico de la antigüedad, rescató no sólo la idea heraclítea del flujo universal sino esa concepción bélica de la realidad que conciliada con la herencia socrática del estoicismo conlleva una propuesta de un modo de vida filosófico que nos aporte protección frente a esa realidad turbadora y amenazante. El emperador retoma ideas de carácter moral de otros estoicos romanos como Séneca y Epicteto y, a pesar de no ofrecer profundas especulaciones acerca de la realidad, nos permite comprender la estrecha vinculación entre lógica, física y ética.

Voluntary death as an affirmation of dignified life: Death and suicide in Roman late Stoa

This paper will examine the relation that Roman Stoics had towards death and suicide (voluntaria mors). After brief analysis of the historical and social context of the Roman society in which Stoics formed their opinion, it could be claimed that the Stoic defense of suicide is based on their defense of fulfilled and dignified life. According to their ethical thought, Stoics did not consider death as something terrifying, but the opposite; they valued and praised rationally chosen death. Rational death, in their opinion, is not a testimony of useless life, but a confirmation of the idea that the only life worth living is a life according to virtue.

Функции и формы вербальности в духовных и близких к ним антропологических практиках

Functions and forms, in which the verb is used in spiritual practices and practices related closely to them are analyzed systematically. The following classes of prac¬tices are considered: 1) Eastern-Orthodox hesychasm, 2) Hellenistic practices of the Self (practices of the Roman Stoicism, Cynism and Epicureanism) as they are interpreted by Michel Foucault, 3) Far-Eastern practices as they are represented in Zen-Buddhism. The problem of the sacred word in spiritual practice is discussed. A number of comparative observations and conclusions are obtained concerning, in particular, "hot" and "cool" practices and corresponding kinds of verbality, typolog¬ical distinctions of verbality in Eastern and Western anthropological practices, etc.